Leadership and Organizational Behavior

By:
PRATIVA ARYAL
MBA (SOMTU)
PROJECT MANAGEMENT/GLM (HANGDONG
GLOBAL UNIVERSITY, SOUTH KOREA)
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OFFICER
SUJAL FOODS PVT. LTD.
FREELANCE RESEARCHER
Unit 2: Perception and Learning
• Concept of perception
• Factors affecting perception
• Attribution theory
• Attribution errors
• Perception and individual decision making
• Concept of learning
• Learning theories
• Factors influencing learning
• Behavior modification
Perception
Perception
• Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret
their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment.
• What we perceive can be substantially different from objective reality.
• Peoples behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not
on reality itself.
• People’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not
on reality itself.
• The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally
important.
Different Visual Perceptions Different Perceptions of Language

“you deserve this”

• Language can also be used to

manipulate our behavior.
• For example, advertisers often use
persuasive language to sell products.
• They may use words like “you deserve
this” or “you need this” to make us buy
a product.
• By manipulating our behavior, we can
influence our view of the world.
Different Audio Perceptions
Different Cultural Perceptions
• Selective
Attention
• Volume
preferences
How can we explain the fact that an individual
may look at the same thing yet perceive it
differently?
 The way we see and understand the world isn't
just about our eyes and ears
• It's like a recipe with many ingredients that affect
how we interpret things
• Our physical condition, like feeling tired or hungry,
can add an unexpected twist to how we see things.
• And don't forget our personal thoughts and beliefs –
they're like a secret spice that flavors our perception.

So, just like a mix of ingredients in a dish, these

factors blend together to create our unique way of
seeing and understanding the world around us
Factors Influencing Perception

9
Factors in the Situation
Time:
• The timing of an event or the amount of time available to process information
can influence perception.
• If it's a sunny day, then we perceive a child's drink to be the most lovable
thing to have, but if it's a chilly winter day, we perceive coffee to be the most
lovable thing to have
• For example, receiving feedback from a supervisor just before a critical
deadline may be perceived differently than receiving it during a less stressful
time.
Work Setting:
• The environment in which perception occurs, such as a formal office setting
versus a casual social setting, can shape how information is interpreted.
• An employee may perceive feedback differently when given in a private office
compared to a team meeting.
Factors in the Situation
Social Setting:
• The social context, including the presence of others and
social norms, can impact perception.
• For example, drinking alcohol is perceived a part of life in
some community. While for many other communities, it is
perceived as a taboo.
• For instance, an individual may interpret a comment
differently when made in a formal meeting versus a casual
gathering of friends.
Factors in the Perceiver
Attitudes:
• Personal attitudes can color perception.
• For instance, a person with a positive attitude towards change may
perceive a new project as exciting, while someone with a negative
attitude may see it as burdensome.
Motives and Interests:
• Personal goals and interests influence what individuals pay
attention to and how they interpret information.
• A salesperson interested in closing a deal may perceive client cues
differently than someone with less motivation.
Factors in the Perceiver
Experience:
• Past experiences shape perception.
• If you've been to a beach, you can imagine another beach easily
• For example, someone who has had positive experiences with
teamwork may perceive collaborative projects more favorably than
someone with negative past experiences
Expectations:
• Preconceived notions and expectations can significantly influence
how individuals interpret information.
• If a person expects a presentation to be boring, they may be more
likely to perceive it as such.
Factors in the Target
Novelty:
• Novel stimuli tend to attract attention and may be perceived more
intensely.
• For instance, a new product launch might capture more attention
than routine daily tasks.
Motion:
• Moving objects or dynamic elements in a situation can draw
attention and influence perception.
• A rapidly changing stock market may elicit different perceptions
compared to a stable one.
Factors in the Target

Sounds:
• Auditory stimuli can shape perception.
• For example, background music in a store may influence how
shoppers perceive the atmosphere and their overall experience.
Size:
• The size of an object can affect its perceived importance or
significance.
• A larger font in a presentation may draw more attention than
smaller text.
Factors in the Target
Background:
• The context in which an object or event occurs can impact
perception.
• Placing a product in a luxurious setting versus a simple one can
influence how it is perceived by consumers.
Proximity:
• The closeness of objects to each other can affect how they are
perceived.
• Items placed close together may be perceived as related or forming
a group.
Factors in the Target
Similarity:
• Similar elements in a situation may be grouped together in
perception.
• For instance, people wearing similar uniforms may be perceived as
part of the same organization or team.
Attribution theory
• Attribution theory is a psychological framework that focuses on
how individuals explain the causes of events, behaviors, and
outcomes.
• Tries to explain the ways in which we judge people differently,
depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior.
• An attempt to determine whether an individuals behavior is
internally or externally caused.
• Determination however depends largely on three factors
distinctiveness, consensus, consistency

Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations.

Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation.
Consistency: responds in the same way over time.
Attribution Theory

•Consistency: Does the person

usually behave this way in this
situation?
•Distinctiveness: Does the person
behave differently in different
situations?
•Consensus: Do others behave
similarly in the same situation?
Errors and Biases in Attributions

• Fundamental Attribution Error

– The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and
overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments
about the behavior of others
– We blame people first, not the situation

• Self-Serving Bias
– The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal
factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors
– It is “our” success but “their” failure

21
 Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others

• Selective Perception: People selectively interpret what they see on

the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes

• Halo Effect: Drawing a general impression about an individual on

the basis of a single characteristic

• Primacy: We quickly form an opinion of people on the basis of the

first information we receive about them

• Recency: The most recent information dominates perceptions of

others
 Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
• Contrast Effect: Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by
comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the
same characteristics

• False – consensus effect (Similar-to-me effect): A perceptual error in which we

overestimate the extent to which others have beliefs and characteristics similar to
our own

• Stereotype: Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which
that person belongs – a prevalent and often useful, if not always accurate,
generalization

• Profiling: A form of stereotyping in which members of a group are singled out for
intense scrutiny based on a single, often racial, trait
Illusion
• In this famous ambiguous figure
it is possible to see either a
young woman or an old woman

• Nose, hat, feather, ear, etc. are

identifiable...but your mind
seems to be imposing these
interpretations on the drawing
rather than being compelled by
the "perceptual evidence"

24
Self Fulfilling Prophecy

A self-fulfilling prophecy refers to a situation in which a belief or expectation,

whether true or false, influences a person's behavior in such a way that it causes
the belief or expectation to become true.
We become what people expect us to become

… and so a negative belief predicts a negative behaviour

If a teacher thinks you will fail in an exam you probably will!

Prophecy Prophecy
Expectation
Is set is fulfilled
 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle

Supervisor
forms
expectations

Employee’s Expectations
behavior matches affect supervisor’s
expectations behavior

Supervisor’s
behavior affects
employee
26
 Specific applications of shortcuts in organization

Employment interview
 Major input in to who is hired and who is rejected in an organization.

 Interviewer generally draw early impressions that very quickly become established.

 we form impression of other within a tenth of a second, based on first glance on them.

 A good applicant is probably characterized more by absence of unfavorable

characteristics than by the presence of favorable characteristics.

Performance Expectations
 People attempt to validate their perceptions of reality, even when those
perception are faulty.
 The term self- fulfilling prophecy has evolved to characterized the fact that
an individual’s behavior is determined by other peoples expectations.
Performance Evaluations
 Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) perceptions of appraisers
of another employee’s job performance.
 The link between perception and individual decision
making

 Individuals in organization makes decisions.

i.e they make choice from among two or more alternatives.

 Decision making occurs as reaction to problems.

 Every decisions requires us to interpret and evaluate
information.
 Decision making in organization
Rational decision making

A decision making model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some
outcome.

Steps in rational decision making model:

 Define the problem

 Identify the decision criteria

 Allocate weights to the criteria

 Develop the alternatives

 Evaluate the alternatives

 Select the best alternative

Bounded rationality
• Bounded rationality is a concept introduced by Herbert A.
Simon, a Nobel Prize-winning economist and cognitive
psychologist.
• Bounded rationality is a concept in behavioral economics and decision theory
that acknowledges the limitations on human rationality when making decisions.
• It proposes that individuals, when faced with complex choices or uncertain
situations, are constrained by cognitive limitations, information constraints, and
time constraints.
• Decision-makers do not always have the capacity to gather and
process all possible information or evaluate every alternative
thoroughly.
• Instead, they rely on heuristics, or rules of thumb, to simplify
decision-making.
Bounded rationality: An example
• An example of bounded rationality can be illustrated in the context of
purchasing a new smartphone.
• Imagine you need to choose a smartphone from a wide range of options
available in the market.
• Bounded rationality implies that you may not have the time, resources, or
cognitive capacity to thoroughly research and compare all the
specifications, features, and reviews of every available smartphone.
• Instead, you might use heuristics, such as relying on brand reputation,
considering the recommendations of friends or family, or focusing on a few
key features that are important to you, like camera quality or battery life.
• This simplification allows you to make a reasonably good decision within
the constraints of limited time and information.
Intuition
 Intuition in decision-making refers to the ability to make
decisions quickly and effectively based on a person's instincts,
gut feelings, and past experiences, often without a conscious
and deliberate analysis of all available information
 The least rational way of making decision is to rely on intuition.
 Is non-conscious process created from distilled experience.
 Common biases and errors in decision making
• To minimize effort and avoid difficult trade offs, people tend to
rely too heavily on experience, impulses, gut feelings, and
convenient rule of thumb which cause common biases in
decision making.
Overconfidence Bias
• Overconfidence Bias is the tendency people have to be more
confident in their own abilities, including making moral
judgments, than objective facts would justify.
Anchoring bias
 Tendency to fixate on initial information and fail to adequately
adjust for subsequent information.
 Anchors are widely used by people in profession where
persuasion skill are important such as advertising, management,
politics, real state, and law.
Confirmation bias
 The confirmation bias represents a specific case of selective
perception.
 The tendency to seek out information that reaffirms past
choices and to discount information that contradicts past
judgment.
Availability bias
• The tendency for people to base their judgments on information
that is readily available to them.
Escalation of commitment
Refers to staying with decision even when there is clear evidence
that its wrong.
Randomness error
The tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the
outcome of random events.
Winners curse
A decision making dictum which argues that the winning
participants in an auction typically pay too much for the winning
item.
Hindsight bias
• The tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is
actually known, that one would have accurately predicted that
outcome.
Learning
• A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior tendency)
that occurs as a result of a person’s interaction with the
environment.
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or
knowledge that occurs through experience, study, or practice.
• Involves acquiring new information, skills, behaviors, or attitudes
through various cognitive and behavioral processes.
• Learning enables individuals to adapt to their environment, make
informed decisions, and modify their behavior based on
experiences.
Factors affecting Learning
Motivation:
• The internal or external drive that initiates, guides, and sustains behavior.
• Influences the direction, intensity, and persistence of learning.

Cognitive Abilities:
• Individual differences in processing, memory, problem-solving, and reasoning
abilities.
• Impact how information is acquired, retained, and utilized.

Prior Knowledge and Experience:

• Existing knowledge and experiences shape how new information is processed and
integrated.
• Serves as a foundation for building new understanding.
Factors affecting Learning
Learning Environment:
• The physical and social context in which learning occurs.
• Includes factors such as resources, support, and cultural influences.

Feedback and Reinforcement:

• Timely and constructive feedback enhances learning.
• Reinforcement, positive or negative, influences the likelihood of a behavior
being repeated.
Behavior modification
• Behavior modification is a systematic approach to changing and influencing
human behavior.
• Behavior modification is a therapeutic technique that uses positive or
negative reinforcement to encourage desired behaviors and discourage
undesired behaviors.
• Origin: Developed from behaviorist principles, notably by B.F. Skinner.
• Goal: To bring about positive behavior change through a structured and
evidence-based approach.
• Behavior is influenced by consequences.
• Positive reinforcement strengthens behavior by
adding a positive stimulus.
• Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by
removing an aversive stimulus.
• Punishment weakens behavior by adding an
aversive stimulus.
ABC Model

• Antecedent: Events that occur before a behavior.

• Behavior: The observable action or response.
• Consequence: Events that follow a behavior, influencing its likelihood of
recurrence.
A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification
Antecedents Behavior Consequences

What happens What person What happens

before behavior says or does After behavior

Example
Employee Employee
Attendance
attends receives
bonus system
scheduled attendance
is announced
work bonus

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. Unive

rsity of Tehran.
 Shaping Behavior: A Managerial Tool
• Positive Reinforcement
• Rewarding desired behavior to increase its likelihood of recurrence.
• Examples: praise, incentives, recognition.

• Negative Reinforcement
• Removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of desired
behavior.
• Example: turning off an annoying alarm when getting out of bed.

• Punishment
• Applying an aversive consequence to decrease the likelihood of undesired behavior.
• Should be used cautiously and ethically.

• Extinction
• Withholding reinforcement to decrease the occurrence of a behavior.
• Important for eliminating undesirable behaviors.

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. Unive

rsity of Tehran.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Behaviors
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Continuous

Fixed ratio

Variable ratio
Time (Days)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Fixed interval

Variable interval

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. Unive

rsity of Tehran.
 Recall your first day of class, and how you felt about this course and instructor. What
elements might have influenced your perception of what the remainder of the semester
be like?
 Behavior Modification
The application of reinforcement
concepts to individuals in the work
setting.

Five
FiveStep
StepProblem-Solving
Problem-SolvingModel
Model
1.
1. Identify
Identifycritical
criticalbehaviors
behaviors
2.
2. Develop
Developbaseline
baselinedata
data
3.
3. Identify
Identifybehavioral
behavioralconsequences
consequences
4.
4. Develop
Developand
andapply
applyintervention
intervention
5.
5. Evaluate
Evaluateperformance
performanceimprovement
improvement
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 2–51
OB MOD Organizational Applications
• Well Pay versus Sick Pay
– Reduces absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not
absence.
• Employee Discipline
– The use of punishment can be counter-productive.
• Developing Training Programs
– OB MOD methods improve training effectiveness.
• Self-management
– Reduces the need for external management control.

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 2–52

Learning theories
 Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning is a type of
learning that was first systematically
studied by Ivan Pavlov.
• A type of conditioning in which an Key
KeyConcepts
Concepts
individual responds to some stimulus ••Unconditioned
that would not ordinarily produce such Unconditionedstimulus
stimulus
a response. ••Unconditioned
Unconditionedresponse
response
• It is the process of learning to ••Conditioned
Conditionedstimulus
stimulus
associate a particular thing in our ••Conditioned
Conditionedresponse
response
environment with predicting what will
happen next.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US):
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
Example: In Pavlov's classic experiments, food was the unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned Response (UR):
The natural and automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus.
Example: Salivation in response to food.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
Initially, a neutral stimulus that, through association with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to
trigger a conditioned response.
Example: The ringing of a bell in Pavlov's experiments.
Conditioned Response (CR):
The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
Example: Salivation in response to the ringing of the bell after it has been associated with food.
 Pavlov's Dogs: Pavlov
conditioned dogs to associate the
sound of a bell (CS) with the
presentation of food (US).

Over time, the bell alone could

elicit salivation (CR) even without
the food (US).
Extinction:
• If the conditioned stimulus (CS) is
repeatedly presented without the
unconditioned stimulus (US), the
conditioned response (CR)
weakens and eventually
diminishes.
Spontaneous Recovery:
• After a period of extinction, the
conditioned response (CR) may
reappear in response to the
conditioned stimulus (CS),
although weaker than before.
 Application to Organizational Behavior:

Advertising and Branding:

– Companies use classical conditioning to associate positive
emotions with their products or brands.
Performance Management:
• Feedback and Recognition:
– Associating specific cues (e.g., a particular sound or visual
signal) with positive feedback or recognition can lead to positive
emotional responses and increased motivation among
employees.
Employee Engagement:
• Recognition Programs:
– Linking specific cues, such as the announcement of an employee
of the month, with positive recognition can enhance employee
engagement and motivation.
 Application to Organizational Behavior:

Organizational Culture:
• Symbolic Associations:
• Symbolic elements such as logos, slogans, or rituals can be associated
with positive aspects of the organizational culture, fostering a positive
workplace environment.
• Onboarding Practices:
• A positive onboarding experience, including warm welcomes and support,
can create positive associations with the organization for new employees.
 Operant Conditioning
• Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner
postulated this theory.
Key
KeyConcepts
Concepts
• A type of conditioning in which desired
voluntary behavior leads to a reward or ••Reflexive
Reflexive(unlearned)
(unlearned)behavior
behavior
prevents a punishment. ••Conditioned
Conditioned(learned)
(learned)behavior
behavior
• Operant conditioning argues that one’s ••Reinforcement
Reinforcement
behavior will depend on a variety of
situations.
• People will repeatedly behave in a
specific way from which they will
benefit. On the other hand, they will try
to avoid behavior where they will get
nothing.
Reflexive (Unlearned) Behavior:
– Reflexive behavior, also known as unlearned or innate
behavior, refers to actions or responses that occur
automatically and involuntarily in response to specific stimuli.
– These behaviors are typically hardwired and do not require
prior learning or experience.
– Examples of reflexive behavior include blinking in response to
a sudden bright light, withdrawing a hand from a hot surface
Conditioned (Learned) Behavior:
– Conditioned behavior, on the other hand, refers to actions or
responses that are acquired through learning and experience.
– This type of behavior is a result of conditioning, which
involves associating a stimulus with a particular response.
Reinforcement:
– Consequences that increase the likelihood of a
behavior being repeated.
– Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus, while
negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus.

Punishment:
– Consequences that decrease the likelihood of a
behavior being repeated.
– Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus, while
negative punishment removes a desirable stimulus.
Positive reinforcement
• Giving a child a piece of candy (desirable stimulus) for completing their homework
on time, which increases the likelihood that the child will complete their homework
promptly in the future.
Negative Reinforcement
• If a student consistently turns in their assignments on time, the teacher stops
assigning extra homework (removing the aversive stimulus) as a way to encourage
continued timely submission.
Positive Punishment
• Taking classes about road safety in Traffic office
Negative Punishment
• Taking away the license or bluebook
Positive reinforcement
• The organization rewards the employee with a bonus or recognition, encouraging
them to continue their high-performance sales efforts.
Negative Reinforcement
• The manager stops scheduling last-minute meetings or requesting urgent revisions
for this employee, reinforcing the behavior of timely and quality report submissions.
Positive Punishment
• If an employee is given warning (aversive stimulus) for being consistently late to
meetings, and as a result, the behavior of being late is expected to decrease, this is
an example of positive punishment.
Negative Punishment
• If an employee loses the privilege of working from home (removing a desirable
stimulus) due to consistently missing project deadlines, and as a result, the behavior
of missing deadlines is expected to decrease, this is an example of negative
punishment.
 Application to Organizational Behavior:

Employee Performance and Productivity:

Positive Reinforcement:
– Providing praise, recognition, or rewards for high-quality work or achieving specific
goals can increase the likelihood of employees continuing to exhibit such behaviors.
Negative Reinforcement:
– Removing obstacles, such as reducing workload after meeting targets, can motivate
employees to maintain or increase their productivity.
Leadership and Management:
Positive Reinforcement:
– Leaders can use positive reinforcement to encourage desired behaviors among team
members, fostering a positive and collaborative work environment.
Punishment:
– Disciplinary actions, when applied fairly and consistently, can deter undesirable
behaviors within a team or organization.
 Application to Organizational Behavior:

Training and Skill Development:

Positive Reinforcement:
• Offering rewards or recognition for employees who engage in training programs
and acquire new skills can encourage continuous learning and development.
Negative Reinforcement:
• Removing barriers to skill development, such as providing access to resources or
mentorship, can motivate employees to enhance their competencies.
 Social-Learning Theory
• Social Learning theory is also called observational learning theory.
• This theory emphasizes on learning through observation of other’s.
• People can learn through observation and direct experience.

Key
KeyConcepts
Concepts
••Attentional
Attentionalprocesses
processes
••Retention
Retentionprocesses
processes
••Motor
Motorreproduction
reproductionprocesses
processes
••Motivation
Motivationprocesses
processes
 Social-Learning Theory: Key process
•Attention:
• Individuals must pay attention to the model's behavior to learn from
it.
•Retention:
• The observer must be able to remember the observed behavior for
later reproduction.
•Reproduction:
• The observer must be capable of reproducing the behavior, which
may involve physical or cognitive skills.
•Motivation:
• The observer is more likely to imitate the behavior if they expect
positive reinforcement or rewards.
 Social-Learning Theory: Assumptions
• Learning is not actually behavioural, rather it is a cognitive process that takes place in a
social context.
• Learning can occur by observing a behaviour and observing the consequences of the
behaviour (known as vicarious reinforcement).
• Learning involves observation, extracting information from those observations, and
making decisions about behaviour performance (known as observational learning or
modelling).
• Reinforcement plays an important role in learning but is not solely responsible for
learning.
• The learner is not a passive recipient of information; Understanding, environment and
behaviour all mutually influence each other.
 Example of Social Learning Theory in an organizational context
1.Observation:
i. A new employee, Pooja, joins a company and is assigned to a training program for a
complex software application.
ii. Pooja observes her colleague, Rita, who is an experienced user of the software,
completing tasks efficiently and effectively.
2.Modeling:
i. Rita becomes a model for Pooja as she consistently demonstrates how to navigate the
software, use advanced features, and troubleshoot common issues.
ii. Pooja pays close attention to Rita's approach to problem-solving and how he maximizes
the software's capabilities.
3.Imitation:
i. Encouraged by the positive results observed in Rita's performance, Pooja starts imitating
his behaviors and techniques.
ii. She replicates the steps demonstrated by Rita, incorporating his best practices into her
own approach to using the software.
4.Vicarious Reinforcement:
i. As Pooja successfully implements the learned strategies, she receives positive feedback
from her manager and colleagues for her improved efficiency.
ii. The positive reinforcement serves as motivation for Pooja to continue applying the
modeled behaviors.
 Example of Social Learning Theory in an organizational context
5. Self-Efficacy:
i. Sarah's confidence in her ability to use the software grows as she observes the successful
outcomes of her efforts and receives recognition.
ii. This increased self-efficacy contributes to Sarah's willingness to explore additional
features and take on more complex tasks.
6. Knowledge Sharing:
iii. Over time, Sarah becomes proficient in using the software and shares her knowledge with
other new employees.
iv. She becomes a model for her peers, creating a cycle of observational learning within the
organization.
 Application to Organizational Behavior:

Leadership and Role Modeling:

• Leaders serve as models for employees, influencing
organizational culture through their behavior.
Training and Development:
• Social Learning Theory supports the use of modeling
and observational learning in training programs.
• Peer mentoring and role modeling can be effective tools
for skill development.
Organizational Communication:
• The behavior of key figures in an organization can
influence communication patterns.
Organizational Change:
– During periods of change, observing successful
• Edward TolmanCognitive Learning
is recognized as pioneer of cognitiveTheory
theory.
• Cognition defines a person’s thoughts, ideas, knowledge, interpretation,
understanding about himself and about the environment.
• As per this theory, learning is purely an outcome of the thinking process
• This theory expresses the belief that learning involves gaining knowledge and
understanding it by absorbing information in the form of principles, concepts
and facts and then internalizing it.
• Unlike behaviorist theories that emphasize observable behaviors, cognitive
learning theories delve into the internal mental processes that drive behavior.
• The knowledge and understanding of learners can be enriched and internalized
by Case studies , projects, problem solving activities can also be used for this
purpose.
 Scenario: Training Program for New Managers
1.Information Processing:
• New managers are introduced to a training program that covers various aspects of
leadership, decision-making, and team management.
2.Schema and Mental Models:
• Managers bring existing mental models and schemas about leadership and
management to the training.
• As they learn new concepts and skills, they assimilate this information into their
existing mental structures.
3.Memory:
• The training incorporates strategies to enhance memory, such as repetition, visual
aids, and real-world examples.
• New managers are encouraged to actively participate in discussions and apply
concepts to improve retention.
4.Learning Strategies:
• The training provides managers with various learning strategies, such as case studies,
role-playing, and group discussions.
5.Problem-Solving:
• Scenarios and simulations are integrated into the training to challenge managers with
real-world problems.
• Managers engage in problem-solving activities that require them to apply cognitive
processes to find effective solutions.
 Feature Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Focus Stimulus-Response Response-Consequence

Relationship Relationship

Associative Learning with

Learning Mechanism Associative Learning Consequences

Response Type Involuntary Response Voluntary Response

Consequence-Driven
Role of Consequences No Consequences Learning

Examples Pavlov's Dogs Skinner's Box

 Feature Cognitive Learning Theory Social Learning Theory
Observational Learning and
Focus Internal Mental Processes Social Context
Learning Mechanism Mental Processing of Learning through Observation
Information and Imitation
Role of Environment Provides Information and Provides Models and Social
Stimulation Context
Emphasizes Vicarious
Role of Feedback Emphasizes Personal Reinforcement and
Feedback and Reinforcement Punishment

Observational Learning Limited Emphasis Central Concept: Learning

through Observation

Key Concepts Information Processing, Imitation, Modeling,

Memory, Problem Solving Reinforcement, Punishment