Rift-Valley University

Ambo Campus

Pharmaceutical Calculations

For TVET Pharmacy

Students
By: Amente JB. (B.Pharm, MSc,
Clinical Pharmacist)
Course contents

 Some fundamentals of measurement and calculations

 Percentage calculations, dilution and concentration
 Pharmaceutical Terminologies and Medical Terms
 Pharmaceutical equipment and tools
Learning Objectives
• Specifically, upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be
able to –
– Identify the different mathematical expressions of numbers
(significant figures, ratio, percentages, proportion)
– Describe the different measurement used in pharmacy practice
– Describe and calculate density, specific gravity of liquids and
solids
– state the relationship between the different methods of
expressing the concentration of a pharmaceutical preparation
– manipulate a given formula to the amount required on the
prescription
– To familiarize with different pharmaceutical terminologies,
abbreviations and dosage forms
1. Fundamentals of measurement and Pharma
calculations
Introduction
• Pharmaceutical calculations;
• is the area of study that applies the basic principles of
mathematics to the preparation and efficacious use of
pharmaceutical preparations.
• It includes calculations from initial product formulation
through clinical administration and outcomes assessment.
• It is applicable to pharmacy practice in community,
institutional, and industrial settings.
Accuracy and Precision
 Accuracy;
 is a measure of how closely the result of a measurement

agrees with the true or standard accepted value.

 is the degree of agreement between the value displaced on

a balance and the true value of the quantity measured.

 Precision;

 Is the degree of agreement between repeated

measurements of the same quantity.
 is the uniformity or reproducibility of a measurement.

 The closeness of two or more measurements to each other

 Precision is independent of accuracy

 The best quality scientific observations are both accurate

and precise.
Accuracy and Precision
 For example, if in lab you obtain a weight measurement of 3.2
kg for a given substance, but the actual or known weight is 10
kg, then your measurement is not accurate.

 Using the example above, if you weigh a given substance

five times, and get 3.2 kg each time, then your
measurement is very precise.
Significant figures
 Significant figures;
– The numbers recorded in a measurement are called
significant figures
– are consecutive figures that express the value of a
denominate number accurately enough for a given
purpose.
– Significant figures are the digits in a number that
contribute to the accuracy of it
– It is any digit that represents a quantity in the place in
which it stands.
– Any of the digits in a valid denominate number must be
regarded as significant but, zero is dependent on position.
 Significant figures …

 Rules of expressing significant figures

 All non-zero numbers are significant. Eg. 1234

 A zero between two non-zero digits are significant (captive zeros).

 E.g. 4.005 has 4 significant figures.

 Final zeros after a decimal point are significant (trailing zeros)

 E.g. 25.100 has 5 significant figures

 Zero used only to show the location of decimal point is not

significant (leading zeros)
 E.g. 0.00025 has only 2 significant figures.

 Right-end zeros in a number that lacks a decimal point are

not significant.
 E.g 1500 has 2 significant figures.
 Fractions
• When something is divided into parts, each part is considered
a fraction of the whole
• A fraction with the same numerator and same denominator
has a value equivalent to 1

• Decimal fractions: is another means of writing fractions

• E.g, 1/2 =0.5,
 Fraction
• Proper fraction: is a fraction with a value of less than 1
– A fraction with a numerator value smaller than the
denominator’s value

• Improper fraction: is fraction with a value of larger

than 1

• Mixed number: is a whole number and a fraction

 Ratio
• Ratio is the relation or comparison of two like quantities, which
is expressed as a fraction
– For example, the ratio of 8 and 12 can be written as 8: 12 or
as fraction and it can be expressed as 8/12.
• Two ratios with the same values are equivalent.
 Ratio strength

• In pharmacy practice, ratios are often used to express the

concentration of a drug in a solution
• Ratio Strength is another way of expressing the percentage
strength of preparations, because all percentages are a ratio of
parts per hundred
• For example, 5% means 5:100.
• Ratio strength is usually written in simplified form in which the
first figure is 1, Thus, 5:100 is to translated to 1:20
Ratio strength…

 It describes drug concentration in terms of a ratio.

 For solid in liquids: is 1g of solute in milliliters of solution
 For liquid in liquids: is 1ml of solute in milliliters of solution
 For solid in solids: is 1g of solute in grams of solution
 The ratio and percentage strengths of any solution or mixture
of solids are proportional, and either is easily converted to the
other by the use of proportion.
 Ratio strength…
Examples.
1. A certain injectable medication contains 2 mg of a drug per
milliliter of solution. What is the ratio strength (w/v) of the
solution?
2 mg = 0.002 g, = X = 500 ml,
Ratio strength is 1: 500
2. What is the ratio strength (w/v) of a solution made by dissolving
five tablets, each containing 2.25 g of sodium chloride, in enough
water to make 1800 mL?
2.25 g X 5 = 11.25 g of sodium chloride
= x = 160 ml
Ratio strength is 1: 160
 Proportion

• A proportion is the expression of the equality of two ratios.

• It may be written in any one of standard forms:

A: B = C: D, = a/b = c/d
• Each of these expressions is read: A is to B as C is to D, and A
and D is called the extremes (meaning ‘‘outer members’’) and
B and C the means (‘‘middle members’’).
• Example: If 3 tablets contain 975 mg of Aspirin, how many
milligrams should be contained in 12 tablets?
3tablet/12tablet = 975mg/x X = 3900 mg
 Percentage (%)

• The term percent and its corresponding sign (%) mean ‘‘ in a

hundred’’ or ‘‘per hundred.
• percentage means ‘‘rate per hundred’’; so 50 percent (or 50%)
and a percentage of 50 are equivalent expressions.
• A percent may also be expressed as a ratio Examples.
 Example: 25% = 1/4= = 0.25

• It is a convenient means of expressing the concentration of an

active or inactive ingredient in a pharmaceutical preparation.

 System of Measurement Used in
Pharmacy Practice
18

 Pharmaceutical measurement of weight and

volume is an important part of pharmacy
practice.
 The measurement systems include:
 Household system
 Apothecary systems
 Metric System
 Many calculations have been simplified by the
shift from apothecary to metric system of
 Household systems
19

 All three systems—household, metric, and apothecary—have

units of measure for weight and volume.
 Household Measurements of
 Household Measurements of Weight length
 Ounce (oz), Pound (lb). Ton (T)  Inch (in), feet (ft), yard (yd)
 1 ounce = 30g  1 inch = 2.54cm
 1 pound = 454g  1 feet = 12 inches
 1 pound (lb.) = 16 ounces  1 yard = 3 feet= 36 inches

 Household Measurements of volume

 1 teaspoonful (tsp) = 5ml 1 tablespoonful (tbsp) =
15ml
 1 ounce = 2tbsp 1 Cup = 250ml
 1 pint (pt) = 2 cup 1 quart (qt) = 2 pint = 4 cup
 1 gallon (gal) = 4 quart = 8 pint= 16 cup = 4L
 Household Measure
1 tea spoonful(tsp) = 5ml

1 desset spoonful(dssp) =8ml

1 table spoonful = 15ml

1 ounce = 2tbsp or 30 ml

1 wine-glass = 1ounce

1 coffee cup = 6 fluidounce

1 glass = 8 fluidounce

1 quart(qt) = 1 liter

Suprax ® suspension contain 100mg/5ml of the drug cefexime. If the patient

takes one teaspoonful of the suspensions twice daily for ten days. How many
grams of the drug does the patient consume?
5 ml x 2 = 10ml daily =
10 x 10 = 100ml ……….. total dose X = 2g
 Apothecary systems
21

 The apothecary system is a system that was used before the

metric system to measure weight and volume
 Apothecaries’ measure of weight:

 The apothecary system uses ounces in prescribing

medications.
 Pints, quarts and gallons are used to describe larger

volumes.
 In the apothecaries' system, we do not have a unit to

measure length.
 Conversion chart
22
 Metric System
23

 Metric system
 It is the most widely used system of
measurement in the world for prescribing and
administering medications in health.
 The units most commonly used in pharmacy are
those of volume and mass.
 In the metric system, the three primary or
fundamental units are
 meter for length,
 liter for volume, and
 gram for weight.
 Measure of length
24

Unit Abbreviation

0.001 kilometer km

One meter is equal to 0.01 hectometer Hm

0.1 decameter Dkm

10 decimeter dm

100 centimeter cm

1000 millimeter mm

1000,000 micrometer µm

1000,000,000 nanometer nm
 Measure of Volume
25

 The liter is the metric unit of volume. The table of

metric volume follows:
1 liter(L) = 0.001 kiloliter
= 0.01 hectoliter
= 0.1 decaliter
= 10 deciliters
= 100 centiliters
= 1000 milliliters
= 1,000,000 microliters
 Common instruments for the pharmaceutical

measurement of volume range from micropipets

and burettes used in analytic procedures to large,
Measurement of volume

 Common instruments for the pharmaceutical

measurement of volume include:
 cylindrical graduates
 conical (cone-shaped) graduates
 micropipettes (for quantities of one ml or less)
 pipettes
 burettes
 medicinal droppers (for small quantities)
Measurement of volume

 In pharmacy practice, the most common

instruments for measuring volume are cylindrical
and conical (cone-shaped) graduates
 For the measurement of small volumes, however,
the pharmacy technician often uses a calibrated
syringe or, when required, a pipette.
 It is best to select the graduate with a capacity
equal to or just exceeding the volume to be
measured.
 Measurement of volume…….cont’d

Cylindrical
Conical
 (cone-shaped)
graduates
graduates

28
 Measurement of volume…

• Measurement of small volumes in large graduates tends to

increase the size of the error
– the narrower the chamber, the lesser the error in reading
the meniscus and the more accurate the measurement
• According to the United States Pharmacopeia,
– a deviation of 1 mm in the meniscus reading causes an
error of 0.5ml when a 100ml cylindrical graduate is used
and, an error of 1.8ml at the 100-ml mark in a comparable
conical graduate
 Measurement of weight

• The unit of weight in the metric system is the gram(g). The

table of metric weights follows:
1 kilogram(Kg) = 1000,000 grams
1 hectogram(hg) = 100,000 grams
1 gram(g) = 1,000 grams
1 milligram(mg) = 0.001 grams
1 microgram (μg or mcg) = 0.000,001 grams
• Weight is the measurement used most often in pharmacy to
show a dosage unit
 Measurement of weight

• Example 1: If a chlorpheniramines maleate tablet weights

0.26g, one fourth of the same tablet weighs how many
milligrams?
• Since the answer is required in milligrams, convert the weight
of the tablet into milligrams first.
0.26g = 0.26 x 1000 = 260mg
¼ x 260mg = 65 mg
Answer : 65mg
• Example 2: If a vial of gentamycin contains 80mg of a drug in
2ml, how many micrograms of the drug are present in
0.025ml?
= Ans: 1000µg
 Conversions of temperature between degrees
Fahrenheit and Celsius
• The freezing point of water is 0 degrees Celsius
• The boiling point of water is 100 degrees Celsius
Temperature range Conditions
Freeze or cold place Below 2o
Refrigerator 2o to 8o
Cool temperature 8o to 15o
Room temperature 15o to 30o
Warm temperature 30o to 40o
Hot temperature >40o

Freezer – A place in which the temperature is maintained thermostatically between –

20o and – 10o
Refrigerator is a cold place in which the temperature is maintained thermostatically
between 2o and
Cold is any temperature not exceeding 8o
Thermometer
 Prescription Balance
 Weight is measured by means of a balance.

• In dispensing (hospital and community pharmacies), the type

of balance used is called Prescription balance
• The type of balances used in pharmacy practices
– Class A prescription balance,
– Class B prescription balance,
– Electronic analytical balance
 Balance…

 Balances are differentiated from each other by the following

parameters.
Sensitivity:- is the smallest weight that makes a perceptible
change in the pointer of a balance which indicates the
equilibrium position.
Sensitivity requirement:- is the minimum weight required
to move the pointer by one division.
Capacity:- is the maximum weight, which a balance can
weigh.
N.B. The smaller the weight required to move the indicator
one division, the more sensitive is the balance.
 Class A prescription balance

• is a two-pan torsion type balance that can be used for weighing

small amounts of material (120 g or less) and that has a
sensitivity requirement (SR) in the range of +/-6 mg.
 is designed for weighing of pharmaceutical substances required in
the filling of prescription.
 Used to weigh substances from 120mg to 120g, to avoid errors
greater than 5%, when using this balance.
 Class A prescription balance has a sensitivity requirement of 6 mg.
 Class B prescription balance
 Its sensitivity requirement of 30 mg.
 To avoid errors greater than 5%, when using this balance, a
pharmacist should not weigh less than 600mg of a material.
 Electronic Analytical Balance
 Its capable of weighing accurately 0.1 mg, is self calibrating
and are equipped with convenient digital readout features.
 Has greater accuracy than a class A prescription balance
 Electronic Analytical Balance
Percentage of errors…

 Percentage of error may be defined as the maximum potential

error multiplied by 100 and divided by the quantity desired.
 The calculation may be formulated as follows:
Percentage of errors…

• When the maximum potential error is 4 milligrams in a total

of 100 milligrams, what is the percentage of error?

= 4%
Percentage of errors…
 Example1: Using a graduated cylinder, a pharmacist measured
a 30ml of a liquid. On subsequent measurement, using a
narrow-gauge burette, it was determined that the pharmacist
had actually measured 32ml. What was the percentage of
error in the original measurement?
 Ans:
Density, specific
gravity,
specific volume
Density
 Density is defined as mass per unit volume of a substance
expressed as grams per milliliter.

 Example, If 100 ml of Lugol’s solution weighs 120 g, its density

is? Answer = 1.2 g/Ml

• What is the density of hydrochloric acid weighing 10mL and

20g? Ans: = 2g/ml
Specific gravity
 Specific gravity is the ratio of density of a substance to density of a
standard (water).
• Specific gravity is a comparison of weights of equal volumes
 It is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal
volume of water at the similar temperature.
 Water is used as the standard for the specific gravity of liquids and
solids; the most useful standard for gases is hydrogen.
 For practical purposes, specific gravity may be defined as the ratio
of the weight of a substance to the weight of equal volume of
water.
 Specific gravity

• The specific gravity of water is always 1.

• Substances that have a specific gravity less than 1 are lighter
than water.
• Substances that have a specific gravity greater than 1 are
heavier than water.
Specific gravity…
 Pycnometer is a special glass bottle used to determine
specific gravity.
– It is available for laboratory use in volumes ranging from 1 mL to
50mL.
 E.g. If 100ml of syrup weigh 130g, and 100ml of water weigh
100g at the same temperature, the specific gravity of the syrup
is ?
 Answer: 1.3
 E.g2. If a liter of mannitol solution weighs 1285g, what is its
specific gravity?
 1L = 1000g of mannitol solution, Ans: 1.285
 Density versus Specific Gravity
 The density of a substance is a concrete number (1.8 g/mL in
the example),
 whereas specific gravity, being a ratio of like quantities, is an
abstract number (1.8 in the example).
 Whereas density varies with the units of measure used,
specific gravity has no dimension
 the density of water may be variously expressed as 1 g/mL, or,
the specific gravity of water is always 1
 Pycnometer or Specific Gravity Bottle…
Example:
A 50 mL pycnometer is found to weigh 120 g when empty,
171 g when filled with water, and 160g when filled with an
unknown liquid. Calculate the specific gravity of the
unknown liquid.
• Weight of water: 171 g - 120 g = 51 g
• Weight of unknown liquid: 160 g – 120g
= 40 g
Specific gravity of unknown liquid = 40 (g)
51 (g)
= 0.78
Specific volume
 Specific volume is a comparison of volumes of equal weights.
 It is the ratio of the volume of a substance to the volume of equal
weight of another substance taken as standard, the volume of both
substances being determined at the same temperature.
 The standard for liquids and solids is water.
 Note: The specific gravity and specific volume are reciprocal of each
other, and the product of their multiplication is 1.
Specific volume…

• E.g1. If 100g of syrup measures 85ml, and 100g of water

measures100ml at the same temperature, the specific volume
of that syrup is ?
 Answer: 0.85
 E.g2. The specific gravity of ethyl alcohol is 0.82. what is its
specific volume?
 Answer: ??? 1/0.82 =1.22
 2.Percentage
Concentrations
Percentage Concentrations

 Percentage is an essential part of pharmaceutical calculations

 Concentration is the ratio of the quantity of a solute in a

quantity of preparations.
Concentration= quantity of solute
Quantity of preparations
 Ways of expressing concentration
 Percentage strength
 Ratio strength,
 Parts per million (ppm)
 Percentage…
If the designation of the term of a calculation (e.g., w/v, w/w, or
v/v) is not included in a problem, the appropriate assumption must
be made.

e.g., a 1% hydrocortisone ointment is to mean 1% w/w

hydrocortisone ointment
 Types of Percentage
a) Percent weight in volume (% w/v) – it expresses the number of
grams of a constituent (solute) in 100 ml of solution or liquid
preparation.
 Required to express concentration of a solid in liquid
• Expressed as % w/v.

 A powder substance dissolved or suspended in a liquid vehicle

would generally be calculated on weight-in-volume basis.
 Calculating percentage w/v
Q1. What is the percentage strength (w/v) of a solution of urea, if 80
mL contains 12 g?
• 80 mL of water weighs 80 g
12g = 80ml,
? = 100ml
12g x 100ml/80ml = 15%

Q2. How many milliliters of a 3% solution can be made from 27 g of

ephedrine sulfate?
Answer .........Volume (in mL) = 900 mL
Percent weight in volume (% w/v)
 Example3: If 4g of sucrose are dissolved in enough water to make 250ml of
solution, what is the concentration in terms of % w/v of the solution?

Answer = 1.6% w/v

 Example4: An injection contain 40mg of phenobarbital in each milliliter of
solution. what is the concentration in terms of % w/v of the solution?

Answer = 4% w/v
 Calculate the quantity of sodium chloride required for 500ml of 0.9%
solution?

Answer: 4.5g
Percent volume in volume (% v/v)
b) Percent volume in volume (% v/v) - expresses the number of
milliliters of a constituent in 100 ml of solution or liquid
preparation.
• Required to express concentration of a liquid in another liquid.

 A liquid component in a liquid preparation would be calculated

on volume-in-volume basis.
 When a solution of a given strength is diluted, its strength will
be reduced.
 Volume-in-Volume Calculations
Examples1:
How many milliliters of liquefied phenol should be used
in compounding the following prescription?

Volume (mL) x % = milliliters of active ingredient

2.5ml =100ml
? = 240ml
2.5 mL x 240 mL = 6 mL
100 mL
Percent wieght in wieght (% w/w)
 C) Percent wieght in wieght (% w/w) - expresses the number
of grams of a constituent in 100 g of preparation or mixture.
 Required to express concentration of a solid in solid mixture

 A powdered substance mixed with a solid or semisolid would

generally be calculated on a weight-in-weight basis.
 In general, the nature of ingredient in a pharmaceutical
preparation determines the basis of calculation.
Percent weight in weight (% w/w)
…
Examples:
1. How many grams of phenol should be used to prepare
240 g of a 5% (w/w) solution in water?
5g = 100g
? = 240g, Ans: 12g

2. What weight of a 5% (w/w) solution can be prepared

from 2g of active ingredient?
Soln: 5g = 100g x = 40 g
2g = ?
 Conversions of concentration to
mg/mL
 Occasionally, pharmacists, particularly
those practicing in patient care settings,
need to convert rapidly product
concentrations expressed as
 percentage strength in w/v,
 ratio strength, or
 grams per liter (as in IV infusions) to
milligrams per milliliter (mg/mL).
To convert product percentage strength
in % w/v to mg/ml, multiply the
percentage strength expressed by 10.
E.g. 2%w/v = 2x10 = 20mg/ml 61
Conversions of ratio strength to mg/ml

• To convert product ratio strengths to mg/mL, divide

the denominator of ratio strength by
1000.
 The final conversion may be written in 1
mg/ x mL form. Where x= Denominator
÷ 1000.
Example: Convert 1:10,000 (w/v) to mg/mL. 62
Parts per million (ppm)
 The concentrations of very dilute solutions are commonly
expressed in terms of parts per million (ppm)
 i.e., the number of parts of the agent per million parts of the
whole.
 A 1 ppm solution contains 1 part of solute per 1 million parts
of solution
 =

Parts per million (ppm)…

• Example1: The concentration of a drug additive in an animal feed is
12.5 ppm. How many milligrams of the drug should be used in
preparing 5.2 kg of feed?
12.5 ppm = 12.5 g (drug) in 1,000,000 g (feed) Thus,
=
=
X = 0.065g = 65mg
 2. If 14L of commercial ethyl alcohol are found to contain 0.01ml of
butanol, what is the concentration of butanol, in ppm?
 14,000ml = 0.01ml,
 1000,000 =?
 Answer: 0.71ppm
Calculation of doses
 Dose is the amount of a drug administered or taken by a patient for
the intended medicinal effect.
 Single Dose is the amount of drug taken at one time.
 This can be expressed as;
 the weight of drug (e.g. 250 mg of tablet),
 the volume of solution of drug (e.g. 10 mL, 2 drops, etc).
 Total dose is the total amount of drug taken during the course of
therapy.
 Dosage regimen is the schedule of dosing.
 For example, four times per day for 10 days.
 Dose calculations…
 Example2: Amoxicillin is available 125mg/5ml. Amoxicillin 500mg PO is ordered.
How much should the patient administer ?
 Ans: 20ml
 Example3: Furosemide is available as 20mg/2ml. Furosemide 80mg is ordered to
be administered through an IV every 12 hours. What amount should the nurse
administer once?
 Ans: 4ml

• Example:- If a pharmacist counted 40 drops of a medication in filling a graduate

cylinder to the 2.5-mL mark, how many drops per milliliter did the dropper
deliver?

Soln: x = 40 (drops)/2.5 (mL) =16 drops/ mL

3. Reducing and Enlarging Formulas
 Reducing and Enlarging Formulas

Calculations to reduce or enlarge formulas may be

performed by a two-step process:

Step 1. Determine factor that defines the multiple or the

decimal fraction of the amount of formula to be
prepared:
Quantity of formula desired = Factor
Quantity of formula given

Step 2. Multiply the quantity of each ingredient in the

formula by the factor
 Reducing and Enlarging Formulas…
Example1:
From the following formula, calculate the quantity of
each ingredient required to make 240 mL of calamine
lotion.
Master Formula Reduced formula
Calamine 80 g = ______?
Zinc Oxide 80 g =______?
Glycerin 20 g =______?
Bentonite Magma 250 mL =______?
Calcium Hydroxide Topical Solution, to make 1000 mL
240 mL = 0.24 (factor)
1000 mL
 Reducing and Enlarging Formulas…

Cont’d…
Then using the factor 0.24, the quantity of each
ingredient is calculated as follows:
Calamine = 80 g x 0.24 = 19.2 g
Zinc Oxide = 80 g x 0.24 = 19.2 g
Glycerin = 20 g x 0.24 = 4.8 g
Bentonite Magma = 250 g x 0.24 = 60 mL
Calcium Hydroxide Topical Solution, to make 240
mL
 Dilution and Concentration
• Strength of a pharmaceutical preparation may be increased
or decreased by changing the proportion of active ingredient
to the whole.
• Concentration is an expression of the ratio of the amount of
an ingredient to the amount of product
• Increased by:
– addition of active ingredient,
– admixture with a like preparation of greater strength,
– evaporation of its vehicle, if liquid.
• Decreased or diluted by
– addition of diluent
– admixture with a like preparation of lesser strength.
Introduction…
 Stock Solutions are concentrated solutions of active substances
and are used by pharmacists to prepare solutions of lesser
concentration
 It can be diluted to make a product that has a lower
concentration.
 The diluent is an inert solid or semisolid or base that does not
contain any active ingredients.
 Strength is a concentration of the active ingredient
 Total quantity is the sum of quantities of all ingredients (active
ingredient and other additives).
Dilution and concentration of liquids
and solids
 If a mixture of a given percentage or ratio strength is diluted to
twice it original quantity, its strength will be reduced by one
half (whereas, the amount of active ingredient remains
constant).
 The equation:
 (1st quantity) × (1st concentration) = (2nd quantity) × (2nd
concentration) or

Q1 × C1 = Q2 × C2.
 Dilution and Concentration of Liquids…

Example 1
If 50 mL of a 1:20 w/v solution are diluted to 1000 mL,
what is the ratio strength (w/v)?
Solution 1:20 = 5%
Q1 (quantity) X C1 (concentration) = Q2 (quantity) X C2 (concentration)
50 mL X 5 % = 1000 mL X %
50 mL X 5 % = x%
1000 (mL)
x = 0.25% = 1:400
Dilution and Concentration of Liquids…
Example 2:
• How many milliliters of a 1:400 w/v stock solution
should be used to make 4 liters of a 1:2000 w/v
solution?
Solution: 4 liters = 4000 mL
1:400 = 0.25%
1:2000 = 0.05%
Q1 x C1 = Q2 x C2
X X 0.25 % = 4000 mL X 0.05 %
x = 800 mL
 Review Question
1. If 500 mL of a 15% v/v solution are diluted to 1500
mL, what will be the percentage strength (v/v)?
Ans: 5%
2. 2. How many milliliters of water should be added to a
80 mL of a 20% w/v aqueous solution to prepare 3%
w/v solution?
Ans: 453.3ml of water added
3. 3. If an injection containing a medication, 50 mg/10
mL, is diluted to 1L, calculate percent strength of the
resulting solution?
Ans: 0.005%
4. Pharmaceutical Terminologies and
Medical Terms
 Pharmaceutical Terminologies
• There are many abbreviations and terms that health care
professionals use on drug prescriptions.
• Health professionals should be able to understand those
abbreviations and convert them into drug labels or
instructions.
• Pharmacy technicians should also be able to interpret such
abbreviations to make up drugs or fluids as directed by
physicians.
Abbreviations Describing Frequency and Route of Administration
Abbreviations Describing Frequency of Abbreviations Describing Route of
Administration Administration:
Abb. English Latin Abb. Meaning
QOD Every other day….Quote of the Day PO By mouth……… Per Os
QD Once daily………..quaque die SC Subcutaneously
BID Twice daily….. bis in die IM Intramuscular
TID Three times daily…. "ter in die" IV Intravenously
QID Four times daily…. quater in die OD Right eye……. oculus dexter
PRN As needed……….pro re nata OS Left eye…..oculus sinister
qh Every hour….. quaque hora OU Both eyes….oculus uterque
h.s AT bed time………. Hora Somni AD Right ear……aures dextrae
q4h Every four hour AS Left ear……. aures sinistram
q.a.m Every morning AU Both ear….. auris sinistra
Abbreviations Describing Quantity or Dose and medical
terminologies

Abbreviations Describing Quantity or Abbreviations used for medical

Dose: terminologies include:

Abbreviation Meaning Abb. Meaning

Ib Pounds BMI Body Mass Index
mg milligrams N/V Nausea and Vomiting
BP
g Gram Blood Pressure
TB
Kg kilograms tuberculosis
μg microgram HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
NSAID
qs Quantity sufficient Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
mEq milliequivalent RHZE Rifampicin, Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide,
Ethambutol
ml milliliter DOTS Direct observed therapy
tsp Teaspoonful PR Pulse rate
tbsp tablespoonful RR Respiratory rate
 Other Abbreviations:

Abbreviation Meaning
Sig. Signature
Stat. Immediately ………. statim
Rx To take……………….. recipe
Tab Tablet
Mist. Mix……..Mistura
Cap Capsule
gtt drops
D5W Dextrose 5% in water
D/C Discontinue
AC Before Meal……………….. ante cibum
PC After Meal…………………. post cibum"
NPO Nothing by mouth……….Non Per Orem
D.A.W dispense as written
 Medical Terms
• Indication : is a which is a reason to use a certain treatment.

• Adverse drug reaction is a reaction which is noxious and unintended

and which occurs at doses used in humans for prophylaxis,

diagnosis, or therapy”.
– Eg. Hypersensitivity reaction with penicillin

• Contraindication (C/I) is a condition or factor that serves as a reason

to withhold a certain medical treatment due to the harm that it

would cause the patient.

• it is the opposite of indication

– E.g. Tetracycline- children, Warfarin---pregnant women
 Medical Terms
• Drug interaction (D/I) is defined as an interaction between
a drug and another substance that prevents the drug from
performing as expected.
• Fever: is when a human's body temperature goes above the
normal range of 36–37° Celcius.
• Diarrhea is loose, watery stools (bowel movements).
• Nausea is the sensation of being about to vomit.
• Vomiting, or emesis, is the expelling from the stomach of
undigested food through the mouth
 Medical Terms
• Ambulatory- not bed ridden, able to walk by oneself
• Cyanotic- bluish color of the skin and mucous membranes
• Diastolic pressure- the blood pressure level during the time
the heart muscle is relaxed
• Hypertension- high blood pressure
• Hypoglycemia- too little sugar in the blood
• Vasoconstriction- the narrowing and contraction of blood
vessels
• Vasodilatation- the enlargement or dilation of blood vessels
 SOME PHARMACEUTICAL TERMS
• Analgesic- an agent that relieves pain without causing loss of
consciousness. E.g aspirin (ASA),Paracetamol (pcm).
• Antacid- an agent that neutralize stomach acids.

Eg. Al(OH)3 + Mg(OH)2

• Antibacterial- an agent that destroys or suppresses growth
and reproduction of bacteria.
• Antidote- an agent that counteracts a poison or overdose of
drug, e.g. naloxone for opioid analgesic
• Anti-inflammatory-an agent that counteract or suppresses
inflammation. E.g Ibuprofen
 SOME PHARMACEUTICAL TERMS
• Antitussive- an agent that suppresses cough,

e.g. dextromethorphan
• Bronchodilator- an agent which causes dilation of the
bronchi, e.g. salbutamol
• Expiry date- is the date before which the quality of a
pharmaceutical remains acceptable for its intended use.
• Shelf life- the length of time a product can be stored without
deterioration occurring.
 SOME PHARMACEUTICAL TERMS
• Dose : is - the measured quantity of a therapeutic agent to be
taken at one time.
• Frequency : the number of times at which a particular drug to
be taken per day
• E.g four times a day, once a day, ………
• Dosage regimen is the frequency at which the drug doses are
given for specific treatment. E.g Amoxacilline , 500mg, po TID
for 7 days
• Strength- means the concentration of the drug substance
 Dosage Forms
• Dosage –means giving a medication in a prescribed amount.
• Dosage form-is the pharmaceutical preparation with unique
characteristics and which makes dosage possible

They are classified according to

Route of administration Physical

Oral form
Solid
Topical Semisolid
Liquid
Rectal
Gas
Parenteral
Vaginal
Inhaled
Ophthalmic & Otic
 Solid dosage forms
• Solid dosage forms can be either shaped (tablet, capsule, pill,
lozenge, implant) or unshaped (Insufflation, granule, powder
for reconstitution).
• Tablets
• A hard, compressed medication in round, oval or square
shape
• Example: Normal tablets, Chewable tablets, Delayed release
tablets, Film coated tablets, and Sugar coated tablets.
 Solid dosage forms
 Capsules

• Are solid dosage forms in which one or more medicinal/inert

substances are enclosed within small shells of gelatin.
• Capsule shells are usually made of gelatin and may be hard or
soft.
• Hard gelatin capsule: contains powder
• Soft gelatin capsule: contains Liquids
 Solid dosage forms
 Lozenges

• are flat, round, or rectangular preparations that are held in

the mouth until they dissolve, liberating the drug or drugs
Involved
• Implants
• Are small, sterile, solid dosage forms containing concentrated
drug for implantation in the body where they continuously
release their medication over prolonged periods.
• They are most commonly used for hormone replacement
therapy or in contraception
 Liquid dosage forms
• The different types of liquid dosage forms can be in the form
of solutions, Emulsions and Suspensions
• Solutions : one homogenous phase, prepared by dissolving
one or more solutes in a solvent
• Emulsions
• a dispersion system consisting of two immiscible liquids
• o/w or w/o, cloudy appearance
• Suspensions
• A dispersion system where solid particles (dispersed phase)
are dispersed in liquid phase (dispersion medium)
 Semisolid dosage forms
• Unshaped (without specific physical shape)

– Gels : A semisolid systems in which a liquid phase is constrained within

a 3D cross-linked matrix.

– Creams: semisolid emulsion systems (o/w, w/o) containing more than

10% of water.

• Ointments

– Semisolid dosage forms with the oleaginous (hydrocarbon), water-

soluble or emulsifying base

– Oleaginous (hydrocabon) base: Petrolatum (Vaseline – white, yellow)

– Water-soluble base: Polyethylenglycol (PEG)- ointment – syn. macrogol

ointment.
 Semisolid dosage forms
• Pastes
– Semisolid dispersion system, where a solid
particles (> 25%) are dispersed in ointments –
mostly oleaginous (Petrolatum)
• Shaped
– Suppositories
• for rectal administration
• different shapes
• Melting/dissolving at body temperature
– Pessaries (vaginal suppositories)
 Routes of Drug Administration
Enteral route (Via GIT) Parenteral
• Oral
• Intravenous (IV)
• Buccal
• Intramuscular (IM)
• Sublingual
• Subcutaneous (SC)
• Rectal

Parenteral
• Is administration of drugs by using injection.
• used for dugs that are poorly absorbed from the GI tract and
for agents that are unstable in the GI tract.eg. Insuline.
 Routes of Drug Administration
Intravenous (IV)
– Drugs may be given into a peripheral vein

Subcutaneous (SC)
– Involves injection of a liquid into the fatty layer of tissue
just below the dermis of the skin but above the muscle
layer

Intramuscular (IM)
– Injection of drugs to the gluteus maximus (Buttock) or
deltoid (arm).
5. Pharmaceutical equipment, glassware and
tools
 Commonly used pharmaceutical equipment and their role

• There are many different types of drugs that can be compounded

such as pills, inhalants, ointments, creams, and IV fluids.
• Therefore, there is a wide range of equipment and materials that
are needed for the compounding process
• It includes scales, flasks, beakers, graduated cylinders (for
measuring liquids), spatulas, IV materials, vials, syringes and
needles.
• Compounding also requires personal protective equipment (PPE),
(gloves, goggles, masks, etc) that protects the pharmacist and the
drug materials from each other.
 Commonly used pharmaceutical equipment and their role

• Beam/digital balance: is the most accurate and precise

analog front-end (AFE) instrument that uses force sensors to
measure the load of an object
• The triple beam balance
– is an instrument used to measure mass very precisely.
– The device has reading error of +/- 0.05 gram.
– The name refers to the three beams including the middle
beam which is the largest size, the front beam which is the
medium size, and the far beam which is the smallest size.
 Commonly used pharmaceutical equipment and their role

• The difference in size of the beams indicate the difference in weights and
reading scale that each beam carry
• The triple beam balance can be used to measure mass directly from the
objects
• The parts of triple beam balance

– Weighing pan - The area in which an object is placed in order to be

weighed.
– Base - The base rests underneath the weighing pan

– Beams - The three beams on the balance are used to set the level of
precision, with each beam working at different increments (1-10
grams, 10 grams and 100 grams).
 Commonly used pharmaceutical equipment and their role

• Riders - The riders are the sliding pointers placed on top of the balance
beams to indicate the mass in grams on the pan and beam.
• Pointers - The scale pointer marks the equal point of the object's mass on
the scale and mass on the beam
• Zero adjustment knob - This is used to manually adjust the triple beam
balance to the 'zero' mark
• Before using triple beam balance, the scale pointer should be at zero
 Commonly used pharmaceutical equipment and their role

• The maximum mass it can measure is 610 grams (500 grams +

100 grams + 10 grams).
• the smallest mass in which triple beam balance can measure
is one-tenth (0.1) of a gram. To measure very small masses,
scientists use electronic balances
• Electronic analytical balance
– The analytical balance allows the pharmacist to weigh out
very potent drugs with a very high sensitivity and a
previously unmatched degree of accuracy.
 Commonly used pharmaceutical equipment and their role
• Spatula: is a hand-held tool that is used for lifting, flipping, or
spreading of ingredient

• Measuring cylinder
– A graduated cylinder, measuring cylinder or mixing cylinder is a common
piece of laboratory equipment used to measure the volume of a liquid.
– It has a narrow cylindrical shape. Each marked line on the graduated
cylinder represents the amount of liquid that has been measured.
–
 Commonly used pharmaceutical equipment and their role

• Conical flasks
• A conical flask, also called an Erlenmeyer flask or
titration flask, is a type of laboratory flask which features a
flat bottom, a conical body, and a cylindrical neck.
• for holding liquids and mixing them by swirling
 Commonly used pharmaceutical equipment and their role

• Amber colored dispensing bottle

– These environmentally sensitive bottles help eliminate
waste and help to insure product integrity for long term
storage.
– protect sample from UV rays and are ideal
for light sensitive products
 Commonly used pharmaceutical equipment and their role
Pipette
• Pipettes, sometimes called pipets, are small glass or plastic
tubes used to transfer measurable amounts of liquid from one
container to another.

Droppers
• A short glass tube with a rubber bulb at one end and a tiny
hole at the other, for measuring out drops of medicine or
other liquids.
 Commonly used pharmaceutical equipment and their role
Mortar and pestle
• A mortar and pestle are two tools used with each other to
mill (grind) and mix substances.
• The mortar is bowl-shaped, and used to hold the substance to
be ground. ... The pestle is a stick used for pounding and
grinding.
• Mortars and pestles are sometimes used in pharmacies to
crush various ingredients to make drugs
 Commonly used pharmaceutical equipment and their role
• Suppository moulds
• Are a materials come in a variety of cavity sizes and with a
variety of number of cavities per mold which used to design
shape of suppository preparation.
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