STAL3033: Marine Pollution

Eutrophication, Nutrients
Water Quality

• A measure of the condition of water

(groundwater and surface)
• The physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water
• Both types of water exposed to contamination
risks from agricultural, industrial and domestic
activities
• Heavy metals, pesticides, fertilizers, hazardous
chemicals and oils
Four Types

• Potable water: It is safe to drink, pleasant to taste, and

usable for domestic purposes

• Palatable water: It is esthetically pleasing; it considers the

presence of chemicals that do not cause a threat to human
health

• Contaminated (polluted) water: It is that water containing

unwanted physical, chemical, biological, or radiological
substances, and it is unfit for drinking or domestic use

• Infected water: It is contaminated with pathogenic

organism
Type of Parameters
 Biological Parameters

• One of the most helpful indicators

• Maybe the presence or lack of living organism
• assess the water quality on the basis of a
computed species diversity index (SDI)
• a water body with a large number of well-balanced
species is regarded as a healthy system
• Water that is healthy helps keep its organisms
healthy
• Diseased fish shows that the water system is
unhealthy
• E.g. mussels, algal composition
 Keystone species

• Some organisms can be used as an indication for the

existence of pollutants based on their known
tolerance for a specified pollutant

• described as playing a critical role in maintaining the

structure of an ecological community, affecting many
other organisms in an ecosystem and helping to
determine the types and numbers of various other
species in the community

• Without keystone species, the ecosystem would be

dramatically different or cease to exist altogether

• A classic keystone species is a predator that prevents

a particular herbivorous species from eliminating
dominant plant species
 Bioindicators

• Any species (an indicator species) or

group of species whose function,
population, or status can reveal the
qualitative status of the environment.
• Tells about the cumulative effects of
different pollutants in the ecosystem
and about how long a problem may
have been present
 Bioindicator

• Biological response that reveals the presence of

pollutants by the occurrence of typical symptoms
or measurable responses
• Deliver information on alterations in the
environment or the quantity of
environmental pollutants via:
1. Content of certain elements or compounds
2. Morphological or cellular structure
3. Metabolic biochemical processes
4. Behaviour
5. Population structure(s)
 Biological Monitor/
Biomonitor
• An organism that provides
quantitative information on the
quality of the environment around it
• Through bioindicators, scientists
need to observe only the single
indicating species to check on the
environment rather than monitor
the whole community
• The use of a biomonitor is described
as biological monitoring
 Bacteria

• Under favourable conditions of food supply, temperature,

and pH, bacteria can reproduce so rapidly
• rapid growth of visible colonies of bacteria on a suitable
nutrient medium makes it possible to detect and count
the number of bacteria in water
• Distinctions among the various species of bacteria
depends on how they metabolize their food
• A lot of dangerous waterborne diseases are caused by
bacteria
• Certain types of bacteria indicate animal and human
waste pollution (coliform)
• Most strains are harmless, but one E. coli strain can cause
severe diarrhea and kidney damage
CHI Vibrio
 Algae

• Algae are primarily nuisance

organisms in the water supply
because of the taste and odor
problems they create
• Certain species of algae cause
serious environmental and
public health problems
• Blue-green algae can kill cattle
and other domestic animals if
the animals drink water
containing those species
Biogeochemical processes

• Marine environment is dependant upon the continual

release of fresh supplies of essential nutrients
• In pelagic water, recycling of minerals is a slow process,
but greater rates of activity occur in sediments and in
coastal water
• Cycling of elements is regulated by 2:
1)Assimilation of inorganic nutrients by photosynthetic
organism
2) Subsequent mineralization (organic into soluble inorganic
forms) by heterotrophs
Nutrient cycling

A) Nitrogen
B) Sulphur
C) Carbon
D) Phosphorus
E) Silica
Redfield Ratio (C:Si:N:P:Fe)

• C:Si:N:P:Fe= 106:15:16:1:0.1-0.001

• The consistent atomic ratio of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus found

in marine phytoplankton and throughout the deep oceans

• Growth is not controlled by the total of nutrients available but by the

nutrient available in the smallest quantity with respect to the
requirements of the plant

• Species composition of an environment will be determined not only by

nutrient availability but also by their proper relation

• Changes in nutrient ratio cause shifts in phytoplankton communities

• Lower amounts of available iron are associated with lower growth

rates.
Limiting Nutrients

• The growth-limiting nutrient is the one in low proportion to the

others. It will be exhausted first – Limits productivity

• When an ecosystem is limited by a single nutrient that is scarce or

cycles very slowly

• Nitrogen generally limits overall productivity in the marine system

• Phosphorus limitation occurs most often in freshwater system

• The occurrence of silicon limitation appears to be more variable than

phosphorus or nitrogen limitation, and is more prevalent in spring
than summer.

• Nutrient’s supply rate or turnover time is more important in

determining the magnitude or degree of limitation
EUTROPHICATION

• Increased availability of one

or more limiting growth
factors
• Excessive plant and algal
growth
 Eutrophication process

• Excess nutrients enter

waterways.
• Nutrients promote plant
growth, especially algae.
• Algal bloom occurs
• Algae die and are
decomposed by bacteria.
• Decomposition of algae
increase biological oxygen
demand.
• There is a drop in oxygen
levels.
• Fish, macroinvertebrates
and other aquatic life “Is when a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals
and nutrients that induce excessive growth of plants and algae.
forms die. This process may result in oxygen depletion of the water body.”
Cyanobacterial Bloom

• Causative organism: Blue-green

algae (cyanobacteria)
• Marine eubacteria, prokaryotic,
unicellular
• Environment: Freshwater and
marine
• Toxin: Cyanotoxin, Anatoxin,
Mycrocystins, Saxitoxin
• Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal
Blooms (CyanoHABs) are dangerous
to people, animals, or the
environment and can lead to a
depletion of oxygen in the water
and a release of toxins, as well as
taste and odour problems.
Cyanotoxins (Sianotoksin)

• In mammals, including humans, cyanotoxins can cause allergic

and/or respiratory issues, attack the liver and kidneys, or cause
issues with the nervous system.
• Exposure routes to cyanotoxins can include inhalation, contact
with skin and eyes, and consumption of contaminated water.
• Symptoms of mild cases of exposure may include no observable
effects, skin irritation or rash, difficulty breathing, headaches,
and/or nausea
• As exposure increases symptoms may include inflammation of
target organs, organ failure, paralysis, and death in the most
severe cases.
Cyanotoxin Treatment
Processes in Drinking Water
Supplies
Summary of steps

Step 1: Coagulation/flocculation/settling/sedimentation to remove

90% or more of the algal cells

Step 2: A small dosage of potassium permanganate to oxidize the

dissolved form of extracellular toxins

Step 3: Powdered activated carbon (PAC) can be fed to adsorb some

of the algal toxins remaining in solution

Step 4: Nanofiltration/ ultrafiltration to remove about 90% of any

algal cells that did not settle out

Step 5: Final treatment step of disinfection by chlorination and UV

radiation
Waterbody Management
Methods for Algal Blooms

A) PHYSICAL CONTROL

1. Aeration
• Aerators operate by pumping air through a diffuser near the
bottom of the waterbody, resulting in the formation of plumes
that rise to the surface and create vertical circulation cells as
they propagate outwards from the aerator.
• This mixing of the water column disrupts the behavior of algae
to migrate vertically in addition to limiting the accessibility of
nutrients.
• Successfully implemented in small ponds and waterbodies.
• May also provide more favorable growth conditions for
competing organisms.
• Generally more efficient in deeper water columns
• Also highly dependent upon the degree of stratification and the
air flow rate.
2. Hydrologic manipulations
• Low flow conditions in waterbodies can lead to stratification of
the water column, which aids cyanobacterial growth.
• Particularly in regulated systems, the inflow/outflow of water in
the system can be manipulated to disrupt stratification and
control cyanobacterial growth.
• Easy to implement in controlled systems (i.e., reservoirs, dams,
treatment facilities).
• Requires sufficient water volume and the ability to control flow.
• Oftentimes can be expensive.
• Unintended consequences for other aquatic organisms are likely.
3. Mechanical mixing (circulation)
• Mechanical mixers are usually surface-mounted and pump
water from the surface layer downwards or draw water up from
the bottom to the surface layer.
• This mixing of the water column disrupts the behavior of
cyanobacteria to migrate vertically in addition to limiting the
accessibility of nutrients.
• Successfully implemented in 350+ waterbodies in the U.S. Also
used in other countries.
• Individual devices have limited range; areas further away may
remain stratified and provide a suitable environment for growth.
4. Reservoir drawdown/dessication
• In reservoirs and other controlled waterbodies, can draw down
the water level to the point where cyanobacteria accumulations
are exposed above the waterline.
• Subsequent dessication and/or scraping to remove the layer of
cyanobacteria attached to sediment or rock is required, in
addition to the reinjection of water into the system.
• Easy to implement in controlled systems (i.e., reservoirs, dams,
treatment facilities).
• Often times is expensive and requires a significant input of
resources.
5. Surface skimming
• Cyanobacterial blooms often form surface scums, especially in
the later stages of a bloom.
• Oil-spill skimmers have been used to remove cyanobacteria from
these surface scums.
• Often times this technique is coupled with the implementation
of some coagulant or flocculant.
• This technique cannot be effectively employed until the later
stages of a bloom, at which point many of the harmful aspects of
a bloom have materialized. Requires proper equipment prior to
implementation.
6. Ultrasound
• An ultrasound device is used to control HABs by emitting
ultrasonic waves of a particular frequency such that the cellular
structure of cyanobacteria is destroyed by rupturing internal gas
vesicles used for buoyancy control.
• Successfully implemented in ponds and other small
waterbodies.
• A single device can cover up to 8 acres. Non-chemical;
inexpensive.
• Also disrupts cellular functioning of green algae.
• Effectiveness are dependent upon waterbody geometry and
cyanobacteria species.
B) CHEMICAL CONTROL
1. Algaecides
• Algaecides are chemical compounds applied to a waterbody to
kill algae
• Several examples are:
Copper-based algaecides (copper sulphate, copper II alkanolamine,
copper citrate, etc.), Potassium permanganate, Chlorine, Lime
• Relatively rapid and well-established method.
• Properties and effects of compounds are typically well-
understood. Risk of cell lyses and the release of toxins.
• Thus, is often used at the early stages of a bloom.
• Certain algaecides are also toxic to other organisms such as
zooplankton, other invertebrates, and fish.
2. Barley straw
• Barley straw bales are deployed around the perimeter of the
waterbody.
• Barley straw, when exposed to sunlight and in the presence of
oxygen, produces a chemical that inhibits algae growth.
• Studies have shown that decomposed barley straw inhibits the
growth of cyanobacteria Microcystis sp.
• Does not kill existing algae, but inhibits the growth of new algae.
• May take anywhere from 2 to 8 weeks for the barley straw to
begin producing active chemical.
• Potential to cause fish kills through the deoxygenation of the
waterbody due to decay.
3. Coagulation
• Coagulants are used to facilitate the sedimentation of
cyanobacteria cells to the anoxic bottom layer of the water
column.
• Unable to access light, oxygen, and other critical resources, the
cells do not continue to multiply and eventually die.
• Coagulated cells become stressed over time and lyse, releasing
toxins to the waterbody
C) BIOLOGICAL CONTROLS (BIOMANIPULATION)
1. Floating artificial wetlands
• Artificial wetlands are constructed using floating mats and
placed in a waterbody.
• As the plants grow, they function as a sink for excess nutrients
such as phosphorous and nitrogen.
• Periodic harvesting of mature plants is conducted to prevent the
stored nutrients from re-entering the aquatic ecosystem, which
helps to mitigate the risk of blooms by keeping nutrient levels in
balance.
2. Increasing grazing pressure
• Various measures can be introduced to encourage the growth of
zooplankton, benthic fauna, and other aquatic organisms that
feed on cyanobacteria/algae
• The development of niches to encourage the growth of
beneficial organisms.
• Biomanipulation has fewer direct detrimental effects on other
aquatic organisms when compared to chemical and physical
methods.
• Unintended consequences may arise related to the deliberate
modification of the biodiversity of the system. Requires constant
monitoring.