MOD 5

Metrology of Surface
Finish
• Concerned with deviations between points on
the same surface
• Affects the friction characteristics of the parts
in contact
• surface irregularities that are superimposed
on a widely spaced component of surface
texture called waviness
• Surface irregularities primarily arise due to the following
factors:
1. Feed marks of cutting tools
2. Chatter marks due to vibrations
3 rupture of workpiece during cutting operation
4. deformation of workpiece under the action of cutting forces
5. Irregularities in the machine tool itself like lack of straightness
of guideways
 TERMINOLOGY
Roughness
• finer irregularities in the surface texture
• Roughness spacing is the distance between successive peaks or ridges
• Roughness height is the arithmetic average deviation
• may be caused by problems such as tool chatter or traverse feed marks
Waviness
• widely spaced component of surface texture
• error in form due to incorrect geometry of the tool producing the surface
Lay
• direction of the predominant surface pattern
Flaws
• irregularities that occur in isolation or infrequently because of scratches,
cracks
Surface texture
• It is generally understood as the repetitive or random deviations from the
nominal surface that form the pattern of the surface.
• Surface texture encompasses roughness, waviness, lay, and flaws.
 Methods to assign numerical value to
roughness
1. Ten-point Height Average Value
• the average height encompassing a number of successive
peaks and valleys of the asperities
Root Mean Square Value
• square root of the mean of squares of the ordinates of the
surface measured from a mean line
Centre Line Average Value
• It is defined as the average height from a mean line of all
cordinates of the surface, regardless of sign
 METHODS OF MEASURING SURFACE FINISH

1. STYLUS SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT

• A stylus drawn across the surface of the
workpiece generates electrical signals that are
proportional to the dimensions of the asperities.
• A skid drawn over the workpiece surface such that
it follows the general contours of the surface(the
skid also provides the datum for the stylus)
• A stylus that moves over the surface to capture
the contours of surface roughness independent of
surface waviness
• The stylus is typically a diamond having a cone angle of
90° and a spherical tip radius of 1–5 μm or even
less.
• An amplifying device for magnifying the stylus
movements
• A recording device to record the surface profile
• A means for analysing the profile thus obtained
Tomlinson Surface Meter
Taylor–Hobson Talysurf
• The stylus is attached to an armature, which pivots about the centre of
piece of an E-shaped stamping. The outer legs of the E-shaped stamping
are wound with electrical coils.
• A predetermined value of alternating current is supplied to the coils. The
coils form part of a bridge circuit.
• A skid or shoe provides the datum to plot surface roughness.
• The measuring head can be traversed in a linear path by an electric motor.
The motor, which may be of a variable speed type or provided with a gear
box, provides the required speed for the movement of the measuring
head.
• As the stylus moves up and down due to surface irregularities, the
armature is also displaced.
• This causes variation in the air gap, leading to an imbalance in the bridge
circuit. The resulting bridge circuit output consists of only modulation.
• This is fed to an amplifier and a pen recorder is used to make a permanent
record
 Comparators

• compares the unknown quantity with

the standard
• comparator works on relative
measurement
• indicate the deviation from the
standard
• The sensitivity of the comparator to
sense even a minute variation in the
measured value affects its accuracy
classified as follows:
• 1. Mechanical comparators
• 2. Mechanical–optical comparators
• 3. Electrical and electronic comparators
• 4. Pneumatic comparators
 Mechanical comparators
Dial Indicator
• consist of a body with a circular graduated dial, a contact
point connected to a gear train, and an indicating hand that
directly indicates the linear displacement of the contact point
• used along with V-blocks to check the roundness of
components
• Contact Point: Interchangeable, versatile, available in hard, wear-
resistant materials (e.g., heat-treated steel, boron carbide,
sapphire, diamond).
• Contact Point Types: Common types include flat, round, tapered,
and button types.
• Stem Function: Holds the contact point, providing length and
rigidity for accurate measurements.
• Bezel Clamp: Locks the dial after setting the scale to zero.
• Dial Indicator Scale: Least count typically ranges from 0.01 to 0.05
mm
• Dial Types:
– Continuous Dial: Graduations from zero to the end (unilateral tolerance).
– Balanced Dial: Graduations both ways from zero (bilateral tolerance).
• Measurement Type: Measures deviation from a standard
(dynamic, comparative measurement).
• Plunger and Rack Mechanism:
• Plunger carries a rack that meshes with
gear A.
• Rack guide prevents plunger rotation.
• Small plunger movement turns gear A.
• Gear Train:
• Gear A turns gear B (on the same
spindle).
• Gear B transfers motion to gear C,
connected to gear D.
• Gear D meshes with gear E, and gear F
(on the same spindle as the pointer).
• Magnification Formula:
• Magnification in gear train = (TD/TE) ×
(TB/TC), where TD, TE, TB, and TC are the
number of teeth on gears D, E, B, and C.
• Magnification further enhanced by the
Johansson Mikrokator
• Comparator Principle: Uses a
light glass pointer on a twisted
metal strip, based on the
"Abramson movement" for
mechanical magnification.
• Twisted Strip Mechanism:Metal
strip halves twist in opposite
directions.
• Plunger movement causes the
bell crank lever to rotate the
pointer.
• Pointer Movement: Small
plunger movements cause
significant pointer rotation,
recorded on a calibrated scale.
• Amplification Formula: dθ/dl ∝ l/nw² (Amplification ∝ strip
length, inversely with turns and width).
• Magnification Factors:Higher magnification with fewer turns,
thinner strip, and longer strip.
Sigma Comparator
• Plunger Function: Senses linear displacement from the workpiece and
moves on a slit washer for frictionless movement while preventing
rotation.
• Knife Edge: Attached to the plunger, drives the moving member of a cross-
strip hinge.
• Cross-Strip Hinge: Contains a fixed and moving member connected by thin
flexible strips at right angles, enabling smooth motion transfer
• Y-Arm Mechanism: Plunger movement deflects a Y-shaped arm, which
rotates a driving drum connected to the pointer spindle.
• Pointer Movement: Rotates over a calibrated scale for measurement
display.
• Magnification Stages:First Stage: Magnification = L/x (Y-arm length to
knife edge distance).
• Second Stage: Magnification = R/r (pointer length to driving drum radius).
• Overall Magnification Formula: (L/x) × (R/r).Adjustable Magnification:
Adjust x (knife edge position) and r (driving drum radius) for desired
magnification.
 Measurement of gears
Types of Gears
• Spur gears - teeth are cut on the
periphery and are parallel to the
axis of the gear. They are used to
transmit power and motion
between parallel shafts
• Helical gears The gear teeth are cut
along the periphery, but at an angle
to the axis of the gear. can deliver
higher torque since there are more
number of teeth in a mesh at any
given point of time.
• Herringbone gears - These gears
have two sets of helical teeth,
one right-hand and the other left-
hand, machined side by side.
Lesser axial thrust, smooth
operation
• Worm and worm gears - The axes
of worm and worm gear are at
right angles to each other
• Bevel gears - These gears are
used to connect shafts at any
desired angle to each other.
• Hypoid gears These gears are similar to bevel
gears, but the axes of the two connecting
shafts do not intersect. These gears are mainly
used in automobile rear axle drives.
GEAR TERMINOLOGY
• Base circle - It is the circle from which the involute form is
generated
• Outside circle - It marks the maximum diameter of the gear up to
which the involute form is extended. It is also called the addendum
circle.
• Pitch circle - It is the imaginary circle on which lies the centres of
the pitch cylinders of two mating gears
• Root circle - It is the circle corresponding to the minimum diameter
of the gear profile
• Addendum - It is the radial distance between the addendum circle
and the pitch circle.
• Dedendum It is the radial distance between the pitch circle and the
root circle.
• Face - The portion of tooth lying between the addendum
circle and the pitch circle is called the face.
• Flank - The portion of tooth lying between the pitch circle and
the dedendum circle is called the flank.
• Circular pitch - It is the distance between corresponding
points of adjacent teeth measured along the pitch circle.
• Diametrical pitch - It is expressed as the number of teeth per
unit diameter of the pitch circle
• module m - is given by D/N, pitch circle diameter of the gear
is D
• to ensure interchangeability and smooth meshing of gears,
standard modules are recommended
 Line of Action and Pressure Angle

• line of action
- The mating teeth of two gears in the mesh make contact
with each other along a common tangent to their base
line of action

The angle between the

line of action and the
common tangent to the
pitch circles is known as
the pressure
angle
 ERRORS IN SPUR GEARS

• Gear blank runout errors - The blank may have radial runout on its OD
surface due to errors in the preliminary machining. In addition, it may
have excessive face runout
• Gear tooth profile errors - These errors are caused by the deviation of
the actual tooth profile from the ideal tooth profile. Excessive profile
error will result in either friction between the mating teeth or backlash
• Gear tooth errors - This type of error can take the form of either tooth
thickness error or tooth alignment error
• Pitch errors
• Runout errors - This type of error refers to the runout of the pitch
circle. Runout causes vibrations and noise, and reduces the life of the
gears and bearings. This error creeps in due to inaccuracies in the
cutting arbour and tooling system.
• Assembly errors - Errors in assembly may be due to either the centre
distance error or the axes alignment error
 MEASUREMENT OF GEAR ELEMENTS

• Measurement of Runout - A common method of runout

inspection, called a single-probe check, uses an indicator with
a single probe whose diameter makes contact with the flanks
of adjacent teeth in the area of the pitch circle
Measurement of Pitch
Pitch-measuring Instruments
These instruments enable the measurement of chordal pitch
between successive pairs of teeth.
The instrument comprises a fixed finger and a movable finger,
which can be set to two identical points on adjacent teeth
along the pitch circle. The pitch variation is displayed
on a dial indicator attached to the instrument
 Measurement of Profile

Profile Measurement Using First Principle of Metrology

• In order to carry out the measurement, the gear is
supported between the centres of a dividing head
and its tailstock.
• The height gauge is set at zero at a convenient
position on the gear, for example, point C.
• Now, the gear is rotated in small increments such as
1° or 1', depending on the degree of precision
required by the user
• The actual reading and obtained reading are
compared
 Profile Measurement Using Special Profile-
measuring Instruments
• The arbour assembly holding the gear
moves in two perpendicular directions
in the horizontal plane using a carriage
and cross-slide.
• The measuring head comprising the
feeler, electronic unit, and chart
recorder can be moved up and down by
operating a handwheel
• A spring-loaded feeler maintains
contact with the gear tooth flank and is
positioned directly above a straight
edge.
• If the tooth profile is a true involute,
the feeler remains stationary. Any
deviation causes the feeler to deflect,
and this deflection is sensed, amplified
by an electronic unit, and recorded on a
chart.
 Measurement of Lead

• Lead is the axial advance of a helix for one complete rotation

about its axis
• A measuring pointer traces the gear tooth surface along the
pitch circle, moving parallel to the gear’s axis.
• It is connected to a dial gauge or comparator, which shows
continuous deviations, indicating the total displacement of
the tooth across the face width.
• Lead measurement is particularly crucial for helical and worm
gears.
Measurement of Tooth Thickness
• Measurement with Gear Tooth Callipers
 Interferometry
• 'Interferometry' is a measurement method
using the phenomenon of interference of waves
• Light is a form of energy propagated by
electromagnetic waves
• Distance between 2 troughs or crest are called
wavelength
• Time taken to travel one wavelength is called
time period
• Wave length determines the colour of the light
and amplitude determines the intensity of light
• Monochromatic lights have a single frequency
and wavelength
• Constructive and destructive interference
• A band of dark and bright areas are formed
• Useful for making precise measurements
 Optical flat
• Used to measure flatness using interference
• Optical flats are cylindrical pieces 25 to 300 mm in
daimeter with thickness 1/6th of diameter
• Made of transparent materials like glass, quartz
• One or both surfaces may be highly polished
• They are of two types
• Type A – has single flat working surface, used to test
flatness of precision measuring surfaces of flats, slip
gauges etc
• Type B – has both working surfaces flat and parallel to each
other. Used to test measuring surfaces of micrometer,
measuring anvils etc for flatness and parallelism.
• Two grades, reference grade or grade I and
working grade or grade II
• Grade I flat identified by a 1 mm black dot on
the surface