Statistics

STATISTICS is a scientific body of knowledge that deals with the collection, organization or presentation, analysis, and interpretation.
 Collection- Refers to the gathering of information

 Organization or presentation - involves summarizing data or information in

- Textual form

- Tabular form

- Graphical form

 Analysis - involves describing the data by using statistical methods and procedures

 Interpretation - refers to the process of making conclusions based on the analyzed data
DIVISION OF STATISTICS
1. Descriptive Statistics. Is a statistical procedure concerned with describing the
characteristics and properties of a group of persons, places, or things. It involves
gathering, organizing, presenting, and describing of data.
2. Inferential Statistics. Is a statistical procedure that is used to draw inferences on
information about the properties or characteristics by a large group of people, places, or
things or the basis of the information obtained from a small portion of a large group.
TERMINOLOGIES IN STATISTICS:

POPULATION. Is a large collection of objects, persons, places, or things. To illustrate this,

suppose a researcher wants to determine the average income of the residents of a certain
barangay and there are 1500 residents in the barangay. Then all of these residents comprise
the population. The size of population is denoted or represented by N, in this case N = 1500.

SAMPLE. Is a small portion or a part of population. Sample size is denoted by n.

PARAMETER. Is any numerical or nominal characteristic of a population. It is a value or

measurement obtained from a population. It is usually referred to as the true or actual value.

STATISTIC. Is an estimate of a parameter.

A. DATA COLLECTION OR GATHERING TECHNIQUES
Data may be gathered from primary or secondary sources
1. Primary sources of statistical data are government institutions, business agencies, and other
organizations. Ex. Data gathered from NSO/PSA and information derived from personal interviews.
2. Secondary sources are books, encyclopedia, journals, magazines, and research or studies
conducted by other individual.
Various ways of collecting or gathering data.
1. Direct or Interview Method
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method
3. Registration Method
4. Experimental Method
Determining Sample size, n
To determine the sample size from a given population size, the Slovin’s formula is used.
N
n = ----------------
1 + N (e)2
Where N = Population size = 1000
n = Sample size = ?
e = Margin of error (Ideally: 1 % - 5 %) = 5 % or .05

1000 1000
n = --------------------= ------------ = 285.71 or 286
1 + 1000 (.05)2 1 + 1000 (.0025)
Sampling technique is a procedure to determine the individuals or members of a sample.
Kinds of sampling techniques
A. Probability sampling is a sampling technique wherein each member or element of the population has an equal
chance of being selected as member of the sample.
1.Random Sampling – the basic type of probability sampling.
1. Lottery Method
2. Table of random numbers

2. Systematic Sampling – to draw the members or elements of the sample, select a “random starting point”. This
means picking the nth element of the population as member of the sample.

3. Stratified Random Sampling – dividing the elements of a population into different categories or subpopulation
and then the members of the sample are drawn or selected proportionality from each subpopulation. Stratified is
from the root word “strata” which means groups or categories. (singular form is stratum)

4. Cluster sampling – is a sampling wherein groups or clusters instead of individuals are randomly chosen. This
sampling is sometimes called area sampling because this is usually applied when the population is large.

5. Multistage sampling
B. Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability Sampling is a sampling technique wherein members of the sample are drawn from
the population based on the judgment of the researchers. The results of a study using this sampling
technique are relatively biased. This technique lacks objectivity of selection; hence, it is sometimes
called subjective sampling. Inferences made based on the sample obtained using this technique is not
so reliable. This is use because it is convenient, economical, and easy to conduct.

1. Convenience sampling
2. Quota sampling
3. Purposive sampling
VARIABLE. Is a characteristic or property of a sample or population that makes the members different from
each other. If a class consists of boys and girls, then gender is a variable in this class. Height is also a
variable because different people have different heights. Variables may be classified on the basis of
whether they are discrete or continuous and whether they are dependent or independent.
1. Discrete Variable is one that can assume a finite number of values. In other words, it can assume
specific values only. The values of a discrete variable are obtained through the process of counting. The
number of students in a class is a discrete variable. If there are 40 students in a class, it cannot be
reported that there are 40.2 students or 40.5 students, because it is impossible for a fractional part of a
student to be in the class.
2. Continuous Variable is one that can assume a finite number of values within specified interval. The values
of a continuous variable are obtained through measuring. Height is a continuous variable. If one reports that
the height of the building is 15 m, it is also possible that another persons reports that the height of the same
building is 15.1 m or 15.12 m, depending on the precision of the measuring device used. In other words, the
height of the building can assume several values
3. Dependent Variable is a variable, which is affected or influenced by another variable.
4. Independent Variable is one that affects or influences the dependent variable. To illustrate independent
and dependent variables, considered the problem entitled “The Effect of Computer-Assisted Instruction on
the Students’ Achievement in Mathematics”. Here the independent variable is the computer-assisted
instruction while the dependent variable is the achievement of students in mathematics.
CONSTANT. It is a property or characteristics of a population or sample, which makes the members of the
group similar to each other. For example, if a class is composed of all boys, then gender is constant.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal Scale
This is the most primitive level of measurement. The nominal level of measurement is used when
we want to distinguish one object from another for identification purposes. In this level, we can say that
one object is different from another, but the amount of difference between them cannot be determined.
We cannot tell that one is better or worse than the other.
Examples: Gender, nationality, and civil status are of nominal scale.
2. Ordinal Scale
In the ordinal scale of measurement, data are arranged in some specified order or rank. When
object are measured in this level, we can say that one is better or greater than the other. But we
cannot tell how much more or how much less of the characteristic one object has than the other.
The elements or categories are arranged in some meaningful kind of order or rank, which
corresponds to their relative position or “size”.
Examples:
Ranking of contestants in a beauty contest, sibling in the family, or of honor students in the class.
Preference may have the categories such as most preferred, next preferred, and least preferred.
Quality - poor, fair, good, very good, and outstanding
Birth Order - Eldest, …,Youngest;
Size - Large, Medium, Small;
3. Interval Scale
If data are measured in the interval level, we can say not only that one object is
greater or less than another is, but we can also specify the amount of difference. The
scores in examination are of the interval scale of measurement.
To illustrate, suppose Maria got 50 in a Mathematics examination while Martha got
40. We can say that Maria got higher than Martha did by 10 points.
An interval scale is one where there is order and the difference between two values is
meaningful. Examples of interval variables include: temperature (Fahrenheit), temperature
(Celsius), time measured in minutes or hours, and age measured in years.

Interval scales hold no true zero and can represent values below zero. For
example, you can measure temperatures below 0 degrees Celsius, such as -10 degrees.
4. Ratio Scale
The ratio level of measurement is like the interval level. The only difference is that the
ratio level always starts from an absolute or true zero point. In addition, in the ratio level,
there is always the presence of units or measure. If data are measured in this level, we can say
that one object is so many times as large or as small as the other. For example, suppose Mrs.
Reyes weighs 50 kg while her daughter weighs 25 kg. We can say that Mrs. Reyes is twice as
heavy as her daughter. Thus, weight is an example of data measured in the ratio scale.
Ratio scales never fall below zero. Height and weight measure from 0 and above, but never
fall below it.