CHAPTE

1
Problem Solving

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Section 1.1 Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Inductive Reasoning

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Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the
examination of specific examples is called inductive
reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may not be
correct.

When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next

number in the list according to some pattern you have
observed, you are using inductive reasoning.
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Example 1 – Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each

of the following lists.

a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?

Solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding
number. Thus we predict that the next number in the list
is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the

third numbers differ by 3.

It appears that the difference between any two numbers

is always 1 more than the preceding difference.

Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next

number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.

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Check your progress 1

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number

in each of the following lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?
b. b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?

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Example 2
Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number.

Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the
sum by 2, and subtract 3. Complete the above procedure
for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to
make a conjecture about the relationship between the
size of the resulting number and the size of the original
number.

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Example 2 - Solution
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce
20. Starting with 6 as our original number produces a fi
nal result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a fi nal result
of 40. Starting with 100 produces a fi nal result of 400. In
each of these cases the resulting number is four times
the original number. We conjecture that following the
given procedure produces a number that is four times
the original number.

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Check your progress 2

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number.

Multiply the number by 9, add 15 to the product, divide the
sum by 3, and subtract 5. Complete the above procedure
for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to
make a conjecture about the relationship between the size
of the resulting number and the size of the original
number.

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Example 3
Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance,
Galileo Galilei (1564 –1642) used inductive reasoning to
discover that the time required for a pendulum to
complete one swing, called the period of the pendulum,
depends on the length of the pendulum. Galileo did not
have a clock, so he measured the periods of pendulums
in “heartbeats.”The following table shows some results
obtained for pendulums of various lengths. For the sake
of convenience, a length of 10 inches has been
designated as 1 unit.

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Use the data in the table and inductive reasoning to answer
each of the following
questions.
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its
period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what
happens to its period?
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Example 3 - Solution
a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the
square root of its length. Thus we conjecture that a
pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of 7
heartbeats.
b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a
period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 1
unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period
that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It
appears that quadrupling the length of a pendulum
doubles its period.

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Check your progress 3

A tsunami is a sea wave produced by an underwater

earthquake. The height of a tsunami as it approaches
land depends on the velocity of the tsunami. Use the
table at the left and inductive reasoning to answer each
of the following questions.

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a. What happens to the height of a tsunami when its
velocity is doubled?
b. What should be the height of a tsunami if its velocity
is 30 feet per second?

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Counterexamples

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Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all
cases.

If you can find one case for which a statement is not true,
called a counterexample, then the statement is a false
statement.

In Example 4 we verify that each statement is a false

statement by finding a counterexample for each.

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Example 4 – Find a Counterexample
Verify that each of the following statements is a false
statement by finding a counterexample.
For all numbers x:

Solution:
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we
need only find one counterexample to verify that the
statement is false.

a. Let x = 0. Then | 0 | = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0,

we have found a counterexample.
Thus “for all numbers x, | x | > 0” is a false statement.
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Example 4 – Solution cont’d

b. For x = 1 we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1,

we have found a counterexample. Thus “for all numbers
x, x2 > x” is a false statement.

c. Consider x = –3. Then . . Since 3 is not

equal to –3, we have found a counterexample. Thus “for
all numbers x, is a false statement.

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Check your progress 4
Verify that each of the following statements is a
false statement by fi nding a counterexample for each.
For all numbers x:

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Deductive Reasoning

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Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive

reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion
by applying general principles and procedures.

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Example 5 – Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following

procedure produces a number that is four times the original
number.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add

6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.

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Example 5 – Solution
Let n represent the original number.

Multiply the number by 8:

Add 6 to the product:

Divide the sum by 2:

Subtract 3:

We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given

in this example produces a number that is four times the
original number.

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Check your progress 5

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following

procedure produces a number that is three times the
original number.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6, add

10 to the product,divide the sum by 2, and subtract 5.

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Inductive Reasoning vs.
Deductive Reasoning

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Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

In the next Example we will analyze arguments to determine

whether they use inductive or deductive reasoning.

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Example 6 – Determine Types of Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an

example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums

every other year. Last year the tree did not produce
plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.

b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate.

The contractor estimated that my home improvement will
cost $35,000. Thus my home improvement will cost
more than $35,000.

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Example 6 – Solution
a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific
examples, so it is an example of inductive reasoning.

b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general

assumption, this argument is an example of deductive
reasoning.

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Check your progress 6
Determine whether each of the following arguments is an
example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

a. All Janet Evanovich novels are worth reading. The novel

Twelve Sharp is a Janet Evanovich novel. Thus Twelve
Sharp is worth reading.
b. I know I will win a jackpot on this slot machine in the next
10 tries, because it has not paid out any money during
the last 45 tries.

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Logic Puzzles

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Logic Puzzles
Logic puzzles, similar to the one in Example 7, can be solved
by using deductive reasoning and a chart that enables us to
display the given information in a visual manner.

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Example 7 – Solve a Logic Puzzle
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has
a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
From the following clues, determine the occupation of each
neighbor.

1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before
the dentist.

2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the
editor.

3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.

4. The banker lives next door to Brian. 33

Example 7 – Solution
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the
following chart, write X1 (which stands for “ruled out by clue
1”) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria’s row.

From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by

clue 2) in the Editor column of Sarah’s row.

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Example 7 – Solution cont’d

We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get
home, and we know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get
home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker. Write X2 in the
Banker column of Sarah’s row.

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this

condition. There are now Xs for three of the four occupations
in Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef.
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Example 7 – Solution cont’d

Place a in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the

other three people can be the chef. Write X3 for these
conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four
occupations in Maria’s row; therefore, Maria must be the
editor.

Insert a to indicate that Maria is the editor, and write X3

twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is the editor.
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Example 7 – Solution cont’d

From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this

condition. See the following table. Since there are three Xs
in the Banker column, Sean must be the banker.

Place a in that box. Thus Sean cannot be the dentist.

Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the Dentist
column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a in that box.
Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef,
and Brian is the dentist. 37
Check your progress 7
Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were recently elected
as the new class officers (president, vice president,
secretary, treasurer) of the sophomore class at Summit
College. From the following clues, determine which
position each holds.
1. Ashley is younger than the president but older than
the treasurer.
2. Brianna and the secretary are both the same age,
and they are the youngest members of the group.
3. Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors.

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