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Chapter 3
Thinking Like A
Researcher

McGraw-Hill/ © 2006 Anwar Zahid Companies, Inc., All Rights

The McGraw-Hill
Irwin Reserved.
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Language of Research

Conceptual
Concepts Constructs
schemes

Operational
Models Terms definitions
used
in
Theory research
Variables

Propositions/
Hypotheses
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CONCEPT
Concept is idea or mental picture to
identify a object.

Events Object

Condition
Concrete
Situation Behavior
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CONCEPT
Can you identify? Any confusion?

Running: Young
Jumping: A
boys and girls
Toddler

Standing: An adult
Crawling: A baby male
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CONCEPT

Example: "Success" is a concept. It represents a broad,

abstract idea of achieving something valuable or
desirable.
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Construct

A construct is a more specific

version of a concept and
also…
Subjective

Difficult to visualize/perceive

Example: “Academic success" is a construct. It narrows

the general concept of success to the academic field,
where it can be measured by specific criteria like GPA,
graduation rate, Quality education etc.
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Construct

What are the

traits of
personality?

Does everyone
perceive it in the
same way?
Not Directly Observable

A construct is a definition specifically

invented to represent an abstract
phenomena for a given research project
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Conceptual Scheme

Define a construct with

multiple simpler concepts

This relationship is known

as Conceptual Scheme
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Conceptual Scheme

Assessing a skill
(Presentation Quality)
of a technical writer

This skill is not Directly

Observable
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Conceptual Scheme

Very difficult to find concepts to

define this construct

Hypothetical Construct
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Operational Definition
An operational definition defines a variable in
terms of specific measurement and testing criteria.

Example: To measure "academic success," an operational

definition could be GPA (Grade Point Average)
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Operational Definitions

How can we define the variable “class level of students”?

• Freshman • < 30 credit hours

• Sophomore • 30-50 credit hours
• Junior • 60-89 credit hours
• Senior • > 90 credit hours

Most logical way to define it so that there

will be wider acceptance
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Think??? Concept Vs. Construct &

Operational Definition

Income
Loyalty
Satisfaction

Performance
Service
Quality Growth
 Variable

Concepts and Constructs are used at

theoretical level and variables are used at
empirical level.

Variables are used at empirical level

for the purpose of testing and
measurement.
 Variable
Construct

Assign values
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Assigning Values for

variables
Employment
Status
Categorical

Nominal / Dichotomous:
A categorical variable where values are labels
or names with no meaningful order.

Unemployed: 0
Employed: 1
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Assigning Values for

variables
Categorical
Ordinal:
A Variable where values have a meaningful order
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Assigning Values for

variables
Continuous:
Actual Values (or range)
Example: Height or weight are continuous variables
because they can take on any value within a range
(e.g., 5.75 feet, 140.6 pounds).

Discrete Variable:
A variable that takes on specific, countable
values.
Example: Number of students in a classroom is a discrete
variable, as it can only take whole numbers (e.g., 25, 30)
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Think???

Age Gender

Religious
Affiliation

Temperature

Education
Level
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Dependent & Independent

Variables
Influenced by
Its about
Relationship

Influence* *Causation will be

discussed later
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Independent and Dependent

Variables: Synonyms

Independent Dependent
Predictor Criterion
Presumed cause Presumed effect
Stimulus Response
Predicted from Predicted to
Antecedent Consequence
Manipulated Measured outcome
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Mediator Variable
• A variable that explains the process through which the
independent variable influences the dependent variable.

Example: In a study on how education affects income, skills

gained from education might mediate the relationship. Education
leads to better skills, which in turn lead to higher income .

Education Income
Skills (Mediators)
IV DV
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Practice
Mediating variable
Mediating Variable
• Research Question: How does social media marketing
(IV) affect brand loyalty (DV)?
Mediating Variable: Customer engagement.

• Research Question: How does educational

achievement (IV) affect career success (DV)?
Mediating Variable: Job skills.

• Research Question: How does exercise (IV) influence

weight loss (DV)?
Mediating Variable: Calorie expenditure.
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Moderating Variable
• A moderating variable influences the strength or direction of the
relationship between an independent variable (IV) and a dependent
variable (DV)
• Research Question: How does job stress (IV) affect job
performance (DV)?

Work experience. Moderating Variable

IV (Job Stress) → DV (Job Performance)

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Practice
Moderating
Moderating
• Research Question: How does workload (IV) affect
employee workplace stress (DV)?
Moderating Variable: Support from colleagues.

• Research Question: How does the relationship between

income (IV) and savings (DV) change?
Moderating Variable: Financial literacy.

• Research Question: How does leadership style (IV)

impact employee motivation (DV)?
Moderating Variable: Organizational culture.
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Combining Both Mediating

and Moderating Variables
• Research Question: How does training (IV) affect employee
productivity (DV)?
Mediating Variable: Skill acquisition
Moderating Variable: Employee motivation

• Research Question: How does physical activity (IV) impact

mental health (DV)?
Mediating Variable: Stress reduction
Moderating Variable: Sleep quality

Research Question: How do school nutrition programs (IV) influence

student academic performance (DV)?
Mediating Variable: Concentration levels
Moderating Variable: Socioeconomic status
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Extraneous Variables (EV)/

Control Variable
• Extraneous variables are variables that could
possibly affect a given relationship. The purpose of
controlling these variables is to isolate the effect of
the independent variable
• If an extraneous variable might confuse (puzzle) the study, the
extraneous variable may be introduced as a Control Variable (CV)
to prevent them from influencing the results of the study.

• In a study on the effect of a new teaching method on student

performance, the class size or teaching duration may be control
variables to ensure they don't affect the outcome.

QUS: How does Study time (IV) affects on exam performance

(DV) ? CV??
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Proposition &
Hypothesis
Proposition : A statement about observable phenomena that may be judge
true or false.
Fact is a statement that is objectively true and can be verified with evidence.

Hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction or explanation about the

relationship between two or more variable
Proposition: "If it rains, the streets will get wet.

"Logical: This is a logical statement. While it may sound

testable, it's more of a generalization that can be true or
false in certain situations (e.g., it may not be true if the
streets are covered).

Hypothesis: "Students who sleep for at least 8 hours before an

exam will perform better than those who sleep less than 5 hours.

"Testable: This hypothesis can be tested by comparing the exam

performance of students who meet these sleep conditions.
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Theory vs Hypothesis:

Differences Between Theory and Hypothesis:

Aspect Theory Hypothesis

Broad, explains a wide range of Narrow, focuses on a specific

Scope
phenomena aspect or relationship

Predicts what will happen in a

Explains why or how something specific case
Purpose
happens

Derived from theory, specific to a

Based on extensive research and study or experiment
Basis
evidence

Example:
• Theory: The Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) states that financial markets
are efficient, and stock prices reflect all available information.
• Hypothesis: "Stocks on the New York Stock Exchange will react quickly and
accurately to new earnings reports.“

• In summary, a theory provides an principal explanation, while a hypothesis offers

a testable prediction that is narrower and derived from that theory.
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Theory of the Product Life

Cycle
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Models differ from theories in that a theory’s role

is explanation whereas a model’s role is
representation.
Model
A model is a representation of a system

Circular Flow Diagram/Model in Economics. Primarily, it looks at the way

money, goods, and services move throughout the economy.
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Relational Hypotheses

Correlational
Correlational hypotheses state that the variables occur
together in some specified manner without
implying that one causes the other.
Correlations can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on
how the variables interact

Example 1: Stronger corporate governance (e.g., independent

board members, effective audit committees, transparent
reporting) is associated with better firm performance

EX 2: Young women (under 35 years of age) purchase fewer

units of our product than women who are 35 years of age or
older
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Relational Hypotheses

Explanatory (Causal )

 Aims to identify and quantify the cause-and-effect

relationships between variables.

 This a type of research that seeks to explain the how and why behind
a particular phenomenon. It aims to clarify the underlying causes,
mechanisms, or process
Example:
1. Taking antibiotics (IV) cures bacterial infections (DV).

2. An increase in family income (IV) leads to an increase in the

percentage of income saved (DV
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Hypothesis Formats
Descriptive Hypothesis
is a statement that predicts the existence, size, form,
or distribution of a certain characteristic or
phenomenon, without focusing on a relationship
between variables.

Ex: Hypothesis: "Most customers who purchase this

product are between the ages of 25 and 40."This
statement describes the age group distribution of
customers but does not explain why this is the case.
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Hypothesis Formats
Null Hypothesis (H₀):
This hypothesis states that there is no relationship
between the variables or no effect.

Example: “There is no significant relationship between

corporate governance and firm performance.”

Alternative Hypothesis (H₁ or Hₐ):

This hypothesis states that there is a relationship between
the variables or an effect.

Example: “There is a significant relationship between

corporate governance and firm performance.”
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Hypothesis Formats
Non-Directional Hypothesis (Two-tailed):
This hypothesis predicts that a relationship exists, but does
not specify the direction.
Example: “There is a relationship between corporate
governance (IV) and firm performance (DV)”, but the direction
is not specified.”

Complex Hypothesis:
A complex hypothesis describes a relationship between two or
more independent variables and two or more dependent
variables.
Example: “Board independence and executive compensation
both influence firm performance and market valuation.”
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What Is a Strong
Hypothesis?
• A strong hypothesis
• Adequate for its purpose.
should fulfill three
conditions: • Testable.
• Better than its rivals.

The conditions for developing a

strong hypothesis are developed
more fully in Exhibit 3-4 . (pg 61)
 Sound Reasoning:
sound reasoning refers to the use of logical and structured thinking to arrive at conclusions that are
valid and reliable. It involves making decisions and inferences based on solid evidence, clear
principles, and careful analysis.

Types of Discourse

Exposition Argument

Deduction Induction

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Exposition and Argument are two distinct

forms of discourse used in writing and
communication.

Aspect Exposition Argument

Purpose To inform or explain To persuade or convince

Tone Objective and neutral Subjective and influential

Content Provides background, definitions, and Presents claims supported by

explanations evidence and reasoning

Organized around information and Organized around a thesis and

Structure
ideas supporting arguments

Audience
Aims for understanding Aims for agreement or action
Reaction
Example CG and firm performance Board structure, Independent auditors
on firm performance(ROA)
 Induction
vs Deduction
Deduction
Aspect Induction
Direction Specific to general General to specific

Nature of Probabilistic (may not always be Certain (if premises are

Conclusion true) true)
Testing hypotheses and
Formulating hypotheses and establishing facts
Use
theories

Observation: "Company A, B, and C improved Premise: "All financial institutions

their stock prices after improving corporate are subject to regulatory
governance." oversight."

Conclusion: "Improved corporate governance Bank XYZ is a financial institution.“

leads to better stock performance for all Conclusion: "Therefore, Bank
companies. XYZ is subject to regulatory
oversight."
 Induction

Induction and Deduction are both essential

reasoning processes in logic and research.

Induction helps generate hypotheses and

theories based on specific observations, while
deduction allows for testing and confirming those
hypotheses against established principles.
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