JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD

Material Science and Metallurgy

II Year B.Tech.I Sem

MODULE -I
Ms. Sindhu B
Assistant Professor C
Dpmt of Metallurgical
Engineering
JNTUHCEH
 DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGICAL
ENGINEERING
 VISION
 To impart quality education in Metallurgical Engineering
and constantly pursuing excellence by upgrading knowledge,
skills and attitude useful to Industry, Academic and Society.
 MISSION
 1. To produce graduates having professional excellence in
Basic Sciences and Metallurgical Engineering with concern
towards society.
 2. To provide a scientific environment, to help meet the
desires and needs of students and faculty for enhancing
research efforts and technological innovations.
 3. To provide technical support to higher education, industry
and R&D units.
Objectives
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
Understand and analyze the crystal structure and
classification of materials and determining
mechanical properties and their suitability for
applications.
Classify cast irons and study their applications.
Interpret the phase diagrams of materials.
Select suitable heat-treatment process to achieve
desired properties of metals and alloys.
Understand the ceramics and composite materials
and their properties.
Course outcomes:
The student an able to understand basic idea of the
different material properties and heat treatment process of
ferrous and non ferrous alloys with respect to phase
diagrams.
Syllabus
UNIT — I
 Structure of Metals: Bonds in Solids — Metallic bond - crystallization of metals, grain and
grain boundaries, effect of grain boundaries on the properties of metal / alloys —
determination of grain size.
 Constitution of Alloys: Necessity of alloying, types of solid solutions, Hume Rotherys rules,
intermediate alloy phases, and electron compounds.

UNIT —II
 Equilibrium of Diagrams: Experimental methods of construction of equilibrium diagrams,
Isomorphous alloy systems, equilibrium cooling and heating of alloys, Lever rule, coring
miscibility gaps, eutectic systems, congruent melting intermediate phases, peritectic reaction.
 Transformations in the solid state — allotropy, eutectoid, peritectoid reactions, phase rule,
relationship between equilibrium diagrams and properties of alloys. Study of important binary
phase diagrams of Cu-Ni-, Al-Cu, Bi-Cd, Cu-zn, Cu-Sn and Fe-Fe3C.
Syllabus Cont….
UNIT —III:
 Cast Irons and Steels: Structure and properties of White Cast iron, Malleable Cast iron, grey cast iron,
Spheroidal graphite cast iron, Alloy cast irons. Classification of steels, structure and properties of plan carbon
steels, Low alloy steels, Hadfield manganese steels, tool and die steels.

UNIT — IV:
 Heat treatment of Alloys: Effect of alloying elements on Fe-Fe3C system, Annealing, normalizing, Hardening,
TTT diagrams, tempering, Hardenability surface - hardening methods, Age hardening treatment, Cryogenic
treatment of alloys.
 Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys: Structure and properties of copper and its alloys. Aluminium and its alloys,
Titanium and its alloys.

UNIT — V:
 Ceramic materials: Crystalline ceramics, glasses, cermets, abrasive materials, nanomaterials — definition,
properties and applications of the above.
 Composite materials: Classification of composites, various methods of component manufacture of
composites, particle — reinforced materials, fiber reinforced materials, metal ceramic mixtures, metal —
matrix composites and C- C composites.
 Unit-I
CONTENTS:

Introduction to material science

STRUCTURE OF METALS: Bonds In Solids :-Metallic Bond
 Crystallization of Metals
 Grain And Grain Boundaries
 Effect Of Grain Boundaries on the Properties of Metal/Alloys
 Determination of Grain Size
CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS:
 Necessity of Alloying
 Types of Solid Solutions
 Hume Rotherys Rules
 Intermediate Alloy Phases And Electron Compounds
Classification of Engineering Materials
Metals Classification
Metallurgy:
Metallurgy is defined as art and science of
extracting metals from their ores and these
metals are adapted to satisfy human needs
The sub divisions of metallurgy subject are

 Physical Metallurgy
 Mechanical Metallurgy
 Extractive Metallurgy
Material Science
It deals with basic knowledge of internal
structure, properties and processing of
materials.
This knowledge of application is to convert
materials into products is called Material
Engineering
Bonds in Solids
The atoms and molecules in a solid state are more closely
packed as compared to gaseous and liquid states and are
held together by strong mutual forces of attraction.
 These interatomic forces are electrostatic in nature and
depend upon the electronic structure of matter.
When atoms come closer and finally unite to form
molecules their electrons rearrange themselves in such a
way as to achieve a stable configuration. This arrangement
of electrons gives rise to different types of bonds due to
which atoms are held together.
Bonds can be broadly classified as:
1. Primary Bonds (or Chemical Bonds):
1. Primary bonds
2. Secondary bonds

These are the strongest bonds between atoms

which can be further divided as follows:
(i) Ionic bond.
(ii) Covalent bond.
(iii) Metallic bond.
2. Secondary (or Molecular) Bonds:
Attraction forces (also called vander Waals forces)
exist between atoms or molecules. These bonds
are weaker than primary bonds.
 Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of
valence electron(s) between atoms. It is a type
of chemical bond that generates two
oppositely charged ions. In ionic bonds, the
metal loses electrons to become a positively
charged cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts
those electrons to become a negatively
charged anion.

Ionic bonds are generally formed between

metals and nonmetals
Example of Ionic bond

A classic example of ionic bonding is between Na and Cl. Na is a silvery

metal. It has 1 valence electron. Cl is a yellow-green gas, and it needs 1
electron to fill its valence shell. The ions now have
opposite charges and are attracted to each other by electrostatic forces.
They form a crystal with the rock salt structure.
 Covalent Bonds
A type of chemical bond in which there is
mutual sharing of electrons between two
atoms is called covalent bond. It is further
classified into single, double, and triple
covalent bond with respect mutual sharing of
one, two, and three bonds respectively.
 Example of covalent bond

When two hydrogen atoms get close enough together, the attraction is
balanced in both directions and they share the electrons between them. A
covalent bond is made and hydrogen gas (H2) is Formed.
 Hydrogen bonds
•A hydrogen bond is the attractive force between the
hydrogen attached to an electronegative atom of one
molecule and an electronegative atom of a different
molecule.
•Usually the electronegative atom is oxygen, nitrogen,
or fluorine, which has a partial negative charge.
Example of Hydrogen Bond

Each hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to the oxygen via a

shared pair of electrons. Oxygen also has two unshared pairs of
electrons. Thus there are 4 pairs of electrons surrounding the
oxygen atom, two pairs involved in covalent bonds with hydrogen,
and two unshared pairs on the opposite side of the oxygen atom. Oxygen is
an "electronegative“atom compared with hydrogen.
 Metallic Bonds
Metallic bonding is the type of bonding found
in metallic elements. This is the electrostatic
force of attraction between positively charged
ions and delocalized outer electrons.

Metallic bonding refers to the interaction

between the delocalized electrons and the metal
nuclei.
Example of metallic Bond

As the metal cations and the electrons are oppositely charged, they will be
attracted to each other, and also to other metal cations. These electrostatic
forces are called metallic bonds, and these are what hold the particles
together in metals.
Structure of Crystalline solids
The properties of some materials are directly related to
their crystal structures. i.e. pure and undeformed
magnesium and beryllium, having one crystal structure,
are much more brittle (lower degrees of deformation)
than are pure and undeformed metals such as gold and
silver that have yet another crystal structure.
A knowledge of the crystal structure for iron helps
us understand transformations that occur when
steels are heat treated to improve their mechanical
properties.
Furthermore, significant property differences exist
between crystalline and noncrystalline materials
having
the same composition.
Difference between Crystalline and Amorphous solids
Crystalline and Amorphous Solids
.
Crystal lattice
Lattice is used to represent a three-
dimensional periodic array of points coinciding
with atom positions.
Space lattice is arrangement of points with
each point having exactly same surroundings.
Unit cell and its type
The unit cell is a structural
unit or building block
that can describe the
crystal structure.
Repetition of the unit
cell generates the
entire crystal.

The most common types of unit cells are shown in fig

above
Co-ordination Number

The coordination number, which is the number of closest

neighbors to which an atom is bonded in a crystalline solid.

E.g.: Simple Cubic Crystal: Coordination No.= 6

 Atomic Packing factor

 The atomic packing factor is the fraction of the volume

of the cell actually occupied by the hard spheres.
 Atomic packing factor (APF) or packing efficiency
indicates how closely atoms are packed in a unit cell and
is given by the ratio of volume of atoms in the unit cell
and volume of the unit cell.
Types of unit cells in crystalline solids.
Simple Cubic Crystal (SCC)
Atom at each corner of cubic unit cell
Polonium has this crystal structure
 The hard spheres touch one another along
cube edge ⇒ the cube edge length, a= 2R
The coordination number, CN = 6
Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 1
8 corner atoms shared by eight cells: 8 x 1/8 = 1
Atomic packing factor, APF = 0.52
All corner atoms are equivalent
 Body Centered Cubic Crystal (BCC)
 Atom at each corner and at center of cubic unit cell
Li, Na, K, Cr, Ba, V, α-Fe, W etc.
 The hard spheres touch one another along cube diagonal ⇒ the
cube edge length, a= 4R/√3
 The coordination number, CN = 8
 Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 2
Center atom (1) shared by no other cells: 1 x 1 = 1
8 corner atoms shared by eight cells: 8 x 1/8 = 1
 Atomic packing factor, APF = 0.68
 Corner and center atoms are equivalent
Face Centered Cubic Crystal (FCC)
 Atoms are located at each of the corners and on the centers of all the
faces of cubic unit cell (Cu, Al, Ag, Au ,Pt)
 The hard spheres touch one another across a face diagonal ⇒ the
cube edge length, a= 2√2R
 The coordination number, CN = 12
 Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 4.
 6 face atoms shared by two cells: 6×1/2 = 3
 8 corner atoms shared by eight cells: 8×1/8 = 1
 Atomic packing factor, APF = 0.74 (maximum possible)
 Corner and face atoms in the unit cell are equivalent
 FCC crystal has APF of 0.74, the maximum packing for a system equal-
sized spheres ⇒ FCC is a close-packed structure
 FCC can be represented by a stack of close-packed planes (planes
with highest density of atoms)
Hexagonal closed packed Crystal (HCP)
 HCP is one more common structure of metallic crystals
 Six atoms form regular hexagon, surrounding one atom in center. Another plane is situated
halfway up unit cell (c-axis), with 3 additional atoms situated at interstices of hexagonal
(close-packed) plane
 Cd, Mg, Zn, Ti have this crystal structure
 Unit cell has two lattice parameters a and c. Ideal ratio c/a=1.633.
 The coordination number, CN = 12 (same as in FCC)
 Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 6.
 03 mid-plane atoms shared by no other cells: 3 x 1 = 3
 12 hexagonal corner atoms shared by 6 cells: 12 x 1/6 = 2
 02 top/bottom plane center atoms shared by 2 cells: 2 x 1/2 = 1
 Atomic packing factor, APF = 0.74 (same as in FCC)
 All atoms are equivalent.
Atomic packing factor for SCC crystal

Atoms/unit Volume/
cell atom
APF
Volume/unit
cell

APF for a Simple Cubic Crystal Structure = π /6

= 0.52
Atomic packing factor for BCC crystal

Atoms/unit Volume/
cell atom
APF
Volume/unit
cell
APF for a Body Centered Cubic Crystal Structure =
π√3/8 = 0.68
Atomic packing factor for FCC crystal:

Atoms/unit Volume/
cell atom
APF
Volume/unit
cell
APF for a Face Centered Cubic Crystal Structure =
π/3√2 = 0.74
Comparison of Crystal Structures
Assignment
What is Bravais Lattice? State various
lattice structure given by Bravais with
diagram.
Determine the idea c/a ratio and
calculate the atomic packing factor of
HCP crystal.
REFERENCE BOOKS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Introduction to Physical Metallurgy by Sidney H. Avener.
2. Material science & Metallurgy by Kodgire
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Science of Engineering Materials by Agarwal
2. Materials Science by Vijendra Singh
3. Elements of Material science by V. Rahghavan
4. An introduction to material science by W. g. vinas & HL Mancini
5. Material science & material by C.D. Yesudian & harris Samuel
6. Engineering Materials and their Applications by R. A. Flinn and P. K. Trojan, Jaico
Books.