UNIT – V:

Learning: What is learning, Learning by Taking

Advice, Learning in Problem-solving, Learning
from example: induction, Explanation-based
learning.
Introduction to Neural Networks, Different types
of Learning in Neural Networks, Applications of
Neural Networks, Recurrent Networks
 What is learning?
• According to Herbert Simon, learning denotes
changes in a system that enable a system to
do the same task more efficiently the next
time.
• Learning is a an area of AI that focuses on
process of self-improvement.
• Information processes that improve their
performance or enlarge their knowledge bases
are said to learn.
 What is learning?
Why is it hard?
• Intelligence implies that an organism or
machine must be able to adapt to new
situations.
• It must be able to learn to do new things.
• This requires knowledge acquisition, inference,
updating/refinement of knowledge base,
acquisition of heuristics, applying faster
searches etc.
 Learning
• The following tasks must be learned by an
agent.
• To predict or decide the result state for an
action.
• To know the values for each state(understand
which state has high or low value).
• To keep record of relevant percepts.
1. Rote Learning (memorization): Memorizing things
without knowing the concept/ logic behind them
2. Passive Learning (instructions): Learning from a
teacher/expert.
3. Analogy (experience): Learning new things from
our past experience.
4. Inductive Learning (experience): On the basis of
past experience formulating a generalized concept.
5. Deductive Learning: Deriving new facts from
past facts.
 Why do we require machine learning?
• Machine learning plays an important role in
improving and understanding the efficiency of
human learning.
• Machine learning is used to discover a new
things not known to many human beings.
 Methods of Learning.
 Skill refinement : one can learn by practicing,
e.g playing the piano.
 Knowledge acquisition: one can learn by
experience and by storing the experience in a
knowledge base.
 Taking advice: Similar to rote learning.
although the knowledge that is input may
need to be transformed (or operationalised) in
order to be used effectively.
 Methods of Learning.
 Problem Solving : if we solve a problem one may learn from
this experience. The next time we see a similar problem we
can solve it more efficiently. This does not usually involve
gathering new knowledge but may involve reorganization of
data or remembering how to achieve to solution.
 Induction : One can learn from examples. Humans often
classify things in the world without knowing explicit rules.
Usually involves a teacher or trainer to aid the classification.
 Discovery : Here one learns knowledge without the aid of a
teacher.
 Analogy : If a system can recognize similarities in
information already stored then it may be able to transfer
some knowledge to improve to solution of the task in hand.
 What is rote learning

Rote learning is possible on the basis of

memorization.
• This technique mainly focuses on
memorization by avoiding the inner
complexities. So, it becomes possible for the
learner to recall the stored knowledge.
For example: When a learner learns a poem
or song by reciting or repeating it, without
knowing the actual meaning of the poem or
song.
 Learning by taking advice
• The idea of advice taking in AI based learning was
proposed as early as 1958 (McCarthy).
• There are two basic approaches to advice taking:
1. Take high level, abstract advice and convert it
into rules that can guide performance elements of
the system. Automate all aspects of advice taking
2. Develop sophisticated tools such as knowledge
base editors and debugging. These are used to aid
an expert to translate his expertise into detailed
rules.
 Learning by taking advice
• This is a simple form of learning. Suppose a
programmer writes a set of instructions to instruct
the computer what to do, the programmer is a
teacher and the computer is a student. Once
learned (i.e. programmed), the system will be in a
position to do new things.
• The knowledge must be transformed into an
operational form before stored in the knowledge
base. Moreover the reliability of the source of
knowledge should be considered.
 Learning by taking advice
• FOO (First Operational Operationaliser), for
example, is a learning system which is used to
learn the game of Hearts. It converts the
advice which is in the form of principles,
problems, and methods into effective
executable (LISP) procedures (or knowledge)
 Learning from Example :Induction
• A process of learning by example. The system tries to
induce a general rule from a set of observed instances.
• The learning methods extract rules and patterns out of
massive data sets.
• The learning processes belong to supervised learning, does
classification and constructs class definitions, called
induction or concept learning.
• The techniques used for constructing class definitions (or
concept leaning) are :

1 Winston's Learning program

2 Version Spaces
3 Decision Trees
• Concept learning: Concept learning is basically the
learning task of the machine (Learn by Train data)
• General Hypothesis: Not Specifying features to learn the
machine.
• G = {‘?’, ‘?’,’?’,’?’…}: Number of attributes
• Specific Hypothesis: Specifying features to learn machine
(Specific feature)
• S= {‘pi’,’pi’,’pi’…}: The number of pi depends on a number
of attributes.
• Version Space: It is an intermediate of general hypothesis
and Specific hypothesis.
• It not only just writes one hypothesis but a set of all
possible hypotheses based on training data-set.
 Candidate Elimination Algorithm
Algorithm:

Step1: Load Data set

Step2: Initialize General Hypothesis and Specific
Hypothesis.
Step3: For each training example
Step4: If example is positive example
if attribute_value == hypothesis_value:
Do nothing
else:
replace attribute value with '?' (Basically generalizing it)
Step5: If example is Negative example
Make generalize hypothesis more specific.
 Version Space – Problem 1

Learning the concept of "Japanese Economy

Car“
Step by step solution :
 Example

Concept: Days on which person enjoy sports

Algorithmic steps:

Initially : G = [[?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?],

[?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?]]
S = [Null, Null, Null, Null, Null, Null]

For instance 1 :
<'sunny','warm','normal','strong','warm ','same'>
and positive output.
G1 = G
S1 = ['sunny','warm','normal','strong','warm ','same']

For instance 2 :
<'sunny','warm','high','strong','warm ','same'>
and positive output.
G2 = G
S2 = ['sunny','warm',?,'strong','warm ','same']
For instance 3 :
<'rainy','cold','high','strong','warm ','change'>
and negative output.
G3 = [['sunny', ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, 'warm', ?, ?, ?, ?],
[?, ?, ?, ?, ?, 'same']]
S3 = S2

For instance 4 : <'sunny','warm','high','strong','cool','change'> and

positive output.
G4 = [['sunny', ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, 'warm', ?, ?, ?, ?]]
S4 = ['sunny','warm',?,'strong', ?, ?]

Output :
G = [['sunny', ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, 'warm', ?, ?, ?, ?]]
S = ['sunny','warm',?,'strong', ?, ?]
 Decision Tree
• Decision Tree is the most powerful and popular
tool for classification and prediction.
• A Decision tree is a flowchart-like tree
structure, where each internal node denotes a
test on an attribute, each branch represents an
outcome of the test, and each leaf node
(terminal node) holds a class label.
• It uses ID3 program to build decision tree .
Decision Tree
 Decision Tree
• It begins by choosing random subset of the
training instance. This is called window.
• The algorithm builds the decision tree that
correctly classifies all examples in the window.
• The tree is then tested on the training
examples outside the window.
• If all examples are classified correctly.
Algorithm halts.
• Otherwise adds more examples in the window
and process repeats.
Explanation-based Learning
Explanation-based Learning
Explanation-based Learning
Explanation-based Learning
Explanation-based Learning
 Introduction to Neural Networks

• What is Neural Network

• Types of Neural Networks
• Types of Learning's
• How does a Neural Network work
 What are Neural Networks?
• Neural networks are used to mimic the basic
functioning of the human brain and are
inspired by how the human brain interprets
information.
• It is used to solve various real-time tasks
because of its ability to perform computations
quickly and its fast responses.
What are Neural Networks
What are Neural Networks?
What are Neural Networks?
What are Neural Networks?
 What are Neural Networks?
• An Artificial Neural Network model contains various
components that are inspired by the biological
nervous system.
• Artificial Neural Network has a huge number of
interconnected processing elements, also known as
Nodes.
• These nodes are connected with other nodes using
a connection link.
• The connection link contains weights, these
weights contain the information about the input
signal.
• Each iteration and input in turn leads to updating of
 What are Neural Networks?
• After inputting all the data instances from the
training data set, the final weights of the Neural
Network along with its architecture is known as the
Trained Neural Network.
• This process is called Training of Neural Networks.
• This trained neural network is used to solve specific
problems as defined in the problem statement.
• Types of tasks that can be solved using an artificial
neural network include Classification problems,
Pattern Matching, Data Clustering, etc.
What are Neural Networks?
What are Neural Networks?
 Types of Neural Networks

• Feedforward Neural Networks (FNNs): These are straightforward networks

where information flows in one direction, like from the input to the output.
They’re used for tasks like identifying patterns in data or making predictions,
making them ideal for pattern recognition.
• Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs): Think of these as networks designed
specifically for understanding images. They’re great at recognizing patterns in
pictures, making them perfect for tasks like identifying objects in photos or
videos.
• Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs): These networks are good with
sequences, like predicting the next word in a sentence or understanding the
context of words. They remember previous information, which helps them
understand the current data better.
• Long Short-Term Memory Networks (LSTMs): LSTMs are a type of RNN that
are really good at remembering long sequences of data. They’re often used in
tasks where understanding context over time is important, like translating
languages or analyzing time-series data.
• Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs): These networks are like artists. One
part of the network generates new data, like images or music, while the other
part critiques it to make sure it looks or sounds realistic. GANs are a key
technology in generative AI. GANs are used for creating new content,
 Types of Neural Networks
• (i) ANN– It is also known as an artificial neural
network.
• It is a feed-forward neural network because the inputs
are sent in the forward direction. It can also contain
hidden layers which can make the model even denser.
• They have a fixed length as specified by the
programmer.
• It is used for Textual Data or Tabular Data.
• A widely used real-life application is Facial
Recognition.
• ANN algorithm accepts only numeric and structured
data.
• It is comparatively less powerful than CNN and RNN.
 Artificial Neural Networks Architecture
• There are three layers in the network
architecture: the input layer, the hidden layer
(more than one), and the output layer.
 Types of Neural Networks
• (ii) CNN– It is also known as Convolutional Neural
Networks.
• Researchers use Convolutional Neural Networks
(CNN) and Recursive Neural Networks (RNN) to
accept unstructured and non-numeric data forms
such as Image, Text, and Speech.
• CNN is used for Computer Vision. Some of the real-
life applications are object detection in
autonomous vehicles.
• It contains a combination of convolution layers and
neurons.
• It is more powerful than both ANN and RNN.
 Convolutional Neural Networks.
• CNNs, a type of neural network that mimics
human vision.
 Types of Neural Networks
• (iii) RNN–
• It is also known as Recurrent Neural Networks.
• It is used to process and interpret time series
data.
• In this type of model, the output from a
processing node is fed back into nodes in the
same or previous layers.
• most known types of RNN are LSTM (Long
Short Term Memory) Networks
 Recurrent Neural Networks
• Recurrent Neural Network(RNN) in this
output from the previous step is fed as input
to the current step
• when it is required to predict the next word of
a sentence, the previous words are required
and hence there is a need to remember the
previous words.
 Types of Neural Networks
• There are 3 types of learning in Neural
networks, namely

• Supervised Learning
• Unsupervised Learning
• Reinforcement Learning
 Types of Neural Networks
• real-life applications of neural networks
include Air Traffic Control, Optical Character
Recognition as used by some scanning apps
like Google Lens, Voice Recognition, etc.
 Introduction to Recurrent Neural Network

• Recurrent Neural Network(RNN) is a type of

Neural Network where the output from the previous step
are fed as input to the current step.
• In traditional neural networks, all the inputs and outputs are
independent of each other, but in cases like when it is
required to predict the next word of a sentence, the
previous words are required and hence there is a need to
remember the previous words. Thus RNN came into
existence, which solved this issue with the help of a Hidden
Layer. The main and most important feature of RNN
is Hidden state, which remembers some information about
a sequence.
Introduction to Recurrent Neural Network

• RNN have a “memory” which remembers all

information about what has been calculated.
It uses the same parameters for each input as
it performs the same task on all the inputs or
hidden layers to produce the output. This
reduces the complexity of parameters, unlike
other neural networks.
Introduction to Recurrent Neural Network

• Applications of Recurrent Neural Network

• Language Modeling and Generating Text
• Speech Recognition
• Machine Translation
• Image Recognition, Face detection
• Time series Forecasting