 The vehicle must have proper straight-

line performance for stable driving, cor­

nering performance for driving around
curves, recovery force for returning to
the straight-line condition.
 Therefore, the wheels of a vehicle are
mounted at specific angles to the
ground and specific suspensions for
each pur­pose.
Wheel Alignment - Is the adjustment of
the suspension and steering to ensure
proper vehicle handling with minimum
tire wear.
 When a vehicle is new, the alignment
angles are set at the factory.
 After many miles and/or months of
driving, the alignment angles can
change slightly.
 By adjusting the suspension and
steering components, proper alignment
angles can be restored.
 Refers to the five different angles
between the two front wheels.
It includes:
 Camber
 Caster
 Steering axis inclination SAI (kingpin
inclination
 Toe (toe-angle, toe-in and toe-out)
 Turning radius (wheel angle, turning angle)
 If ever one of these elements is
incorrect, the following problems can
occur:
 Difficult steering
 Poor steering stability
 Poor recovery on curves
 Shortened tire life
 Is the inward
or outward tilt
of the wheels
from true
vertical as
viewed from
the front of
the vehicle.
 If the wheel is true vertical, camber is
zero (0 degrees).
 If the top of the
tire is tilted out,
then camber is
positive (+).
 If the top of the
tire is tilted in,
then camber is
negative (–).
 Excessive positive camber causes
scuffing and wear on the outside edge
of the tire.
 Excessive negative camber causes
scuffing and wear on the inside edge of
the tire.
 Positive camber tilts the tire and forms
a cone shape that causes the wheel to
roll away or pull outward toward the
point of the cone.
 Negative camber creates a pulling force
toward the center of the vehicle.
 If camber angles are different from one
side to the other, the vehicle will pull
toward the side with the most camber.
 Positive camber
applies the vehicle
weight toward the
larger inner wheel
bearing.
 This is desirable
because the larger
inner bearing is
designed to carry
more vehicle
weight than the
outer bearing.
 Negative camber
applies the
vehicle weight to
the smaller outer
wheel bearing.
 Excessive
negative camber,
may contribute to
outer wheel
bearing failure.
 To adjust camber, the change is made
by moving the upper or the lower
control arm or strut assembly by means
of one of the following methods:
a.Shims
b.Eccentric cams
c.Slots
 Most manufacturers specify a positive
setting of about 1/4º to 1/2º.
 Camber should be equal on both sides; if camber cannot
be adjusted exactly equal, make certain that there is more
camber on the front of the left side to help compensate
for the road crown (1/2 degree maximum difference).
 Positive camber can influence the vehicle with a
directional pull. The vehicle will go towards the side that
has the tire with the most camber.
 camber is not adjustable on many
vehicles.
 If camber is adjustable, the change is
made by moving the upper or the
lower control arm or strut assembly
by means of one of the following
methods:
a) shims
b) Eccentric cams
c) Slots
 Is the forward or rearward tilt of the steering
axis in reference to a vertical line as viewed
from the side of the vehicle.
 The steering axis is
drawn through the
upper and lower
steering pivot points.
Zero caster means
the steering axis is
straight up and down
called 0 degrees.
 If the top of the line tilts rearward, the
vehicle is said to have “POSITIVE”
caster.
 If the top of the line tilts forward, the
vehicle is said to have “NEGATIVE”
caster.
 Setting the caster angle on the driver’s side 1/2
degree less than the passenger side for positive
caster specifications or 1/2 degree more for
negative caster specifications, the road crown
should not cause vehicle pull in either direction.
 On an SLA suspension system, the upper
pivot is the upper ball joint and the lower
pivot is the lower ball joint.
 On a MacPherson strut system, the
upper pivot is the center of the upper
bearing mount and the lower pivot point
the lower ball joint.
 Positive (+) caster - is present when
the upper suspension pivot point is
behind the lower pivot point (ball joint)
as viewed from the side.
 Negative (–) caster - is present when
the upper suspension pivot point is ahead
of the lower pivot point (ball joint) as
viewed from the side.
Purpose of Positive Caster:
 Helps keep the wheels traveling in a
straight line.
 When the wheels are turned, it lifts the
vehicle.
 Vehicle weight tends to push the wheels
back to the straight-ahead position.
 Most common on vehicles with power
steering.
Purpose of Negative Caster:
 Wheels will be easier to turn.
 Wheels will tend to swivel and follow
imperfections in the road.
 May be used on vehicles with manual
steering, to ease steering effort.
 Caster is not adjustable on many vehicles.
 If caster is adjustable, the change is made by
moving the lower or upper pivot point forward
or backward by means of one of the following
methods:
a) shims
b) Eccentric cams
c) Slots
d) strut rods
Caster-Camber Gauge
 Used with the turning radius gauge to measure caster and camber in
degrees
 Secured on the wheel hub magnetically or it may fasten on the wheel rim
 Caster and camber are adjusted together since one adjustment may affect
the other
 Is the difference in distance between the
front and rear of the tires.
 Zero toe - means that both wheels on
the same axle are parallel,
 Total toe - is often expressed as an
angle.
 Both front wheels are tied together
through the tie rods and center link.
 Toe angle is always equally split between
the two front wheels when the vehicle
moves forward.
 If the front of the tires is closer than the
rear of the same tires, then the toe is
called toe-in or positive (+) toe.
 If the front of the tires is farther apart
than the rear of the same tires, then the
wheels are toed-out, or have negative
(–) toe.
 If not correct, toe causes camber-type
wear on one side of the tire.
 Excessive toe-in and the type of wear
that can occur to the outside of the left
front tire.
 Some manufacturers of front-wheel-drive vehicles
specify a toe-out setting to compensate for the
toe-in forces created by the engine drive forces on
the front wheels
 Many vehicle manufacturers specify a
slight amount of toe-in to compensate
for the natural tendency of the front
wheels to spread apart (become toed-
out) due to centrifugal force of the
rolling wheels acting on the
 Toe Adjustment
 Adjust the toe by turning the inner tie rod
on a rack and pinion steering system and
by turning the adjusting sleeve on a
parallelogram linkage system.
 To adjust the toe on a vehicle with a
typical rack and pinion system, loosen the
nut on the inner tie rod about a half-inch
from the outer tie rod end.
 Front toe adjustment must be made correctly by adjusting the tie rod sleeves.
 Many vehicle manufacturers specify a slight amount of toe-in to compensate
for the natural tendency of the front wheels to spread apart (become toed-out)
due to centrifugal force of the rolling wheels acting on the steering linkage.
 Is the angle formed between true vertical and
an imaginary line drawn between the upper
and lower pivot points of the spindle.
 Is the inward tilt of the
steering axis, also known as
kingpin inclination (KPI)
 Is also called ball joint inclination (BJI), if
SLA-type suspension is used, or
MacPherson strut inclination (MSI).
 SAI/KPI angle of all vehicles ranges
between 2 and 16 degrees.
 Front-wheel-drive vehicles have greater
than 9 degrees SAI (typically 12 to 16
degrees) for directional stability.
 Aids directional stability by helping the
steering wheel return to the
straight-ahead position.
 Is the SAI angle and
the camber angle
added together of the
front wheels only.
 If the camber angle is
negative (–) (tire tilted
inward at the top), the
camber is subtracted
from the SAI angle to
determine the
included angle.
 Included angle is an
important to measure
for diagnosis of tire
wear problems.
 Knowing SAI, camber,
and included angle
can help in
determining what
needs to be done to
Included angle on an SLA-type
correct the problem. suspension
 If the included angles
are equal side-to-side,
but the camber is
unequal on both sides,
the SAI must be
unequal.
 For best handling, the
included angle should
be within 1/2 degree of
the SAI of the other
side of the vehicle.
Included angle on a MacPherson-strut-
type
 When a vehicle turns a corner, the inside wheel
has to turn at a sharper angle than the outside
wheel.
 Because the inside wheel has a shorter
distance to travel.
 Turning radius is called toe-out on turns, TOT
or TOOT
 The proper toe-out on turns is achieved by
angling the steering arms.
 The proper angle of the steering arms is where
imaginary lines drawn from the steering arms
should intersect exactly at the center of the
rear axle.
 Toe-out on turns is designed into a
vehicle’s steering geometry and must
be equal in both right and left
directions. Toe-out on turns is not
adjustable.
 If the angle is incorrect, it indicates bent
or damaged steering parts
Alignment Machines
The alignment machine consists of a rack, console, and related parts
 Rack
 Consists of a lift, turning radius gauges, and equipment for measuring
alignment angles
 Console
 Consists of a color monitor, keypad, and computer. It provides training,
instructions, specifications, and feedback when doing wheel alignment
 Software
 Alignment equipment software contains computer instructions, equipment
operating instructions, and alignment specifications.
 When installed in the computer, the software will help you adjust all alignment
angles quickly and easily.
Alignment Machines