OPTICAL FIBER

COMMUNICATION
MODULE -1

Dr. RENJITH R J
Assistant Professor
DEPT. OF ECE
SCT College of
Engineering,
Thiruvananthapuram.
 INTRODUCTION
Communication System:
 Communication is defined as the transfer of information from one point to
another.
 When information is to be conveyed over a distance, a communication system
is usually required.

 Within a communication system the information transfer is achieved by super

imposing or modulating the information onto an electromagnetic wave, which
acts as a carrier signal
 The modulated signal is then transmitted through the channel to the required
destination where it is received, and original signal is obtained by demodulation
• Optics: The branch of physical science which deals with the
generation and propagation of light and its interaction with
matter.
• Optoelectronics: The technology of electronic devices that
interacts withlight.
• Fiber optic communication: It is a method of transmitting
information from one place to another by sending light through
an optical fiber. (light frequency is between 100 and 1000 THz. T=)

 An optical fiber is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light

along its length.
 Optical fiber works on the principle of Total Internal
Reflection (TIR).
Block diagram of Optical Fiber
Communication System
• Information source: it provides an electrical signal to a transmitter comprising
an electrical stage.
• Electrical transmitter: it drives an optical source to give a modulation of the
light wave carrier
• Optical source: it provides the electrical-optical conversion. It may be a laser or
an LED.
• Optical cable: it serves as transmission medium.
• Optical detector: it is responsible for optical to electrical conversion of data and
hence responsible for demodulation of optical carrier. The common types of
optical detectors used are photodiodes (p-i-n, avalanche), phototransistors,
photoconductors etc.
• Electrical receiver: it is used for electrical interfacing at the receiver end of the
optical link and to perform the signal processing electrically.
• Destination: it is the final point at which we receive the information in the form
of electrical signal.
• It is notable that the optical carrier may be modulated by either analog or digital
information signal. In digital optical fiber communication system, the
information is suitably encoded prior to the drive circuit stage of optical source.
Similarly at the receiver end a decoder is used after amplifier and equalizer stage.
PRIMARY ELEMENTS OF OPTICAL FIBER
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Transmitter:
• The transmitter first converts the input voltage to current value which is
used to drive the light source. Thus, it interfaces the input circuit and
the light source.
• The light source is normally an infrared LED or LASER device which
is driven by the current value from the V to I convertor. It emits light
which is proportional to the drive current. Thus, light which is
proportional to the input voltage value is generated and given as input
to fiber.
• A source to fiber interface is used for coupling the light source to the
fiber optic cable. The light emitted from the source is inserted into the
fiber such that maximum light emitted from it is coupled to the fiber.

Optical Splice:
• For creating long haul communication link, it is necessary to join one
fiber to other fibers permanently. For this purpose, optical splicing
techniques are used to join different fibers.
.
Optical Coupler/ Beam splitter:
• Optical couplers are used to couple the light output from the fiber
end to the device which can be receiver or regenerator.
• Beam splitters are used to split the light beam which can be given to
other equipment.

Regenerator/ Repeater:
• After an optical signal is launched into a fiber, it will become
progressively attenuated and distorted with increasing distance
because of scattering, absorption and dispersion mechanisms in the
glass material.
• Therefore, repeaters are placed in between to reconstruct the original
signal and again retransmit it.
• The signal is processed in electronics domain and hence optical to
electrical conversion and electrical to optical conversions are
performed in the repeater.
Optical Amplifier:
• After an optical signal has travelled a certain distance along a fiber, it
becomes greatly weakened due to power loss along the fiber.
• Therefore, when setting up an optical link, engineers formulate a power loss
budget and add amplifiers or repeaters when the path loss exceeds the
available power margin.
• The periodically placed amplifiers merely give the optical signal a power
boost, whereas a repeater attempts to restore the signal to its original shape.

Receiver:
• At the destination of an optical fiber transmission line there is a coupling
device (connector) which couples the light signal to the detector.
• Inside the receiver is a photodiode that detects the weakened and distorted
optical signal emerging from the end of an optical fiber and converts it to an
electrical signal. (Referred to as photo current).
• I to V convertor produce an output voltage proportional to the current
generated by the light detector. Thus, we obtain output value which was
given to the system as data input
 Advantages of Optical fiber communication(OFC)

1. Long distance communication: The optical fiber offers very less signal attenuation
over long distances(Typically, it is less than 1dB/Km),there by reducing the no. of
repeaters. Due to this reduction, it reduces the cost and complexity.
2. Large transmission carrying capacity(wide BW): light frequency is between 100 and
1000 THz. Due to this wide BW, more information can be sent over a single physical line.
3. Small size: The diameter of fiber is much smaller compared to other cables; therefore,
fiber cable is small, requires less storage space.
4. light weight: fiber cables are made of silica glass or plastic which is much lighter than
copper cables. Light weight fiber cables are cheaper to transport.
5. Immunity to electrical interference: optical fiber is dielectric material ,doesn't
conduct electricity. Fiber optic cable are immune to conductive and radiative
interferences caused by electrical noise sources such as lighting, electric motors,
fluorescent lights.
6. Safe and easy installation: Fiber cables are safer and easier to install and maintain.
They are non-conductors hence there is no shock hazards as no current or voltage is
associated with them. Their small size and light weight feature makes installation easier.
7. Security: Fiber cables are more secure than other cables. It is almost impossible to tap
into a fiber cable as they do not radiate signals. There is no chance of shock.
8. Ruggedness and flexibility: Fiber cable can be easily bent or twisted without
damaging it, the fiber cables are superior in terms of handling, installation, storage,
 Disadvantages of Optical fiber communication

1. High initial cost: The initial cost of installation or setting up

cost is very high compared to all other system.
2. Maintenance: Skilled labors are required to maintain the
OFC.
3. Installation Challenges: Splicing fiber optic cabling is not
easy and if they are bent or manipulated in shape too much
they will break.
4. Complex testing: Due to small size of fibers, testing
procedure to be more complex.
5. Attenuation & Dispersion: as transmission distance getting
longer, light will be attenuated and dispersed, which requires
extra optical components like EDFA to be added.
6. The coupling of optical fibers is difficult and separated power
supply is required for electronic repeaters at different stages.
 Ray transmission theory
• In free space light travels at its max. possible speedm/s). When
light travels through a material, it exhibits certain behavior
explained by laws of reflection and refraction.
Reflection of light:
• The law of reflection states that, when a light ray is incident
upon a reflective surface at some incident angle from
imaginary perpendicular normal, the ray will be reflected from
the surface at some angle from normal which is equal to the
angle of incidence. (=)
Refraction of light:
• Refraction occurs when light ray passes from one medium to another. When
wave passes through less dense medium to denser medium, the wave is
refracted (bent) towards the normal.
• The refraction (bending) takes place because light travels at different speed in
different mediums. The speed of light in free space is higher than in water or
glass.
Refractive Index:
• The amount of refraction or bending that occurs at the interface of
two materials of different densities is usually expressed as refractive
index of two materials.
• Based on material density, the refractive index is expressed as the
ratio of the velocity of light in free space to the velocity of light of
the dielectric material (substance).

• The refractive index for vacuum and air is 1.0 ,for water it is 1.3 and
for glass refractive index is 1.5.
Snell’s Law
• Snell’s law states how light ray reacts when it meets the interface of
two media having different indexes of refraction.
• Let the two medias have refractive indexes and where >.
• and be the angles of incidence and angle of refraction respectively.
Then according to Snell’s law, a relationship exists between the
refractive index of both materials given by,

• The refracted wave will be towards the normal when and will away
from it when >.
• When the angle of incidence () is progressively increased, there will
be progressive increase of refractive angle (). At some condition ()
the refractive angle () becomes to the normal. When this happens,
the refracted light ray travels along the interface. The angle of
incidence () at the point at which the refractive angle () becomes is
called the critical angle. It is denoted by .
Total Internal Refleciton (TIR)
 When the incident angle is increased beyond the critical angle, the light ray does
not pass through the interface into the other medium. This gives the effect of
mirror exist at the interface with no possibility of light escaping outside the
medium. In this condition angle of reflection () is equal to angle of incidence ().
This action is called as Total Internal Reflection (TIR) of the beam.

 The two conditions necessary for TIR to occur are :

1. The refractive index of first medium must be greater than the refractive index of
second one.
2. The angle of incidence must be greater than (or equal to) the critical angle.
Total Internal Reflection.mp4
Ray theory
• Acceptance angle :
The maximum angle within which light enters the fiber so that it will be to
propagated by TIR is called acceptance angle.
Acceptance cone : The range of angles which make the rays bounded.
• Numerical Aperture (NA)
The numerical aperture (NA) of a fiber is a figure of merit which represents
its light gathering capability of fiber. Larger the numerical aperture, the
greater the amount of light accepted by fiber. The acceptance angle also
determines how much light can be enter the fiber and hence there is relation
between the numerical aperture and the acceptance cone.
 Meridional rays & Skew rays
• Meridional rays enter the optical fiber through the fiber
axis. These rays cross the fiber axis at each reflection. It is
easy to track.
• Skew rays are also known as helical rays as they move on
helical path inside the optical fiber. Skew rays do not cross the
fiber axis and propagate around the optical fiber axis on zigzag
path. It is difficult to track.
Optical Fiber
 An optical fiber is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length.
 Optical fiber works on the principle of Total Internal Reflection(TIR).

 Core
 Glass or plastic with a higher
index of refraction than the
cladding
 Carries the signal
 Cladding
 Glass or plastic with a lower
index of refraction than the
core
 Buffer
 Protects the fiber from
damage and moisture
 Jacket
 Holds one or more fibers in a
cable
 Mode theory of fibers
• The mode theory uses electromagnetic wave behavior to describe the propagation
of light along a fiber.
• Maxwell's equations describe electromagnetic waves or modes as having two
components. The two components are the electric field, E(x, y, z), and the
magnetic field, H(x, y, z).
• In optical fibers the coupling between E and H fields results HE or EH hybrid
modes. The mode with strong magnetic field compared to electric field is called
HE modes. The mode with strong electric field compared to magnetic field is
called EH modes.
• The electric field, E, and the magnetic field, H, are at right angles to each other.
Modes traveling in an optical fiber are said to be transverse. The transverse
modes propagate along the axis of the fiber. In TE modes, the electric field is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The magnetic field is in the
direction of propagation. Another type of transverse mode is the transverse
magnetic (TM) mode. TM modes are opposite to TE modes. In TM modes, the
magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The electric field
is in the direction of propagation.
• The two lowest order modes are and , the subscripts refer to possible
propagation modes of the optical field.
• Fibers constructed so that << 1. the field components are called linearly
polarized (LP) modes and are labeled , where j and m designate mode
solutions.
• For the lowest order modes, each mode is derived from and each mode comes
from , and modes.
• The fundamental mode corresponds to an mode.
• Figure shows only TE modes.
 The order of each mode is indicated by the number of field maxima within the core
of the fiber. i.e. The order of the mode, which is equal to the no. of zero crossing
within the guide. For example, TE0 has one field maxima. As the number of field
maxima increases, the order of the mode is higher.
 The power distributions are not confining completely to the core, but instead
extend partially into the cladding. The fields vary harmonically within the
core(guide) and decay exponentially in the cladding.
 For lower order modes, fields are concentrated tightly near the axis of the fiber
with little penetration into the cladding.
 For higher order modes fields are highly penetrated in cladding region (Radiation
mode). Cladding modes will be suppressed by a lossy coating which covers fiber.
 Leaky modes are only partially confined to core region and attenuate by
continuously radiating their power out of the core as they propagate along the
fiber. Power will be radiated out of fiber due to tunnel effect. This modes will
disappear after few cm distance.
 Propagation condition:
The light will propagate through the fiber if
Where is the propagation factor and k= is the wave number.
 The boundary between guided modes and leaky modes is defined by the cut off
condition:If , power leaks out of the core into the cladding region (radiation
mode).
• V-Number or Normalized Frequency:
V-number is the dimensionless number that determines how many modes a
fiber can support.
• Mode can exist only for values of V that exceeds a certain limiting value.
• The modes are cut off when . This occurs when .
• When V number approaches cut off for any mode, more of the mode power is in
the cladding.
• Far from cut off- for large values of V ,the percentage of optical power that
propagating in the cladding region is:

=
-total optical power
-power in the cladding region
-number of modes

0< V < 2.405 ……..Single Mode Fiber

 Optical fiber –Types

 Based on modes of propagation:

 Single mode fiber (SMF)  Single mode step index fiber
 Multimode fiber (MMF)  Multimode step index fiber
 Multimode graded index fiber
 Based on refractive index profile:
 Step index (SI) fiber
 Graded index (GI) fiber
 Single mode fiber (SMF)

• In a fiber, if only one mode(fundamental mode-mode) is transmitted through

it, then it is said to be a single mode fiber.
• This type of fiber is designed such a that all higher order modes are cut off at
the operating wavelength.
• A typical SMF fiber may have a smaller core radius and a numerical aperture
of 0.1 at a smaller wavelength of 0.8.
• Higher bandwidth due to smaller wavelength.
• Used for long haul communication.
• The single mode operation in a fiber is possible over normalized frequency
range 0< V< 2.405 .
• No dispersion.
Disadvantage :
Fabrication is difficult and cost due to small radius of the core.
 Multimode fiber (MMF)

• In a fiber, if more than one mode is transmitted through it, then it is said to be
a multimode fiber.
• The larger core radius of multimode fibers make it easier to launch optical
power into the fiber.
• Larger wavelength.
• Lower bandwidth .
• Used for short distance communication.
• Fabrication is less difficult and not costly.
• Larger NA as well as core radius, facilitating easier coupling of optical
sources.
• Spatially incoherent optical sources(LEDs) can be used .
• Lower tolerance requirements on fiber connectors..
Disadvantage :
Higher dispersion.
 Based on modes of propagation
Single mode Multimode
1 Propagation of single path. Propagation of multiple path.
2 Smaller diameter (6-12µm). Larger diameter (50-200µm).
3 Dispersion is very low. Dispersion is high.
4 Bandwidth is high.(low Bandwidth is low.(high wavelength)
wavelength)
5 Low numerical aperture Large numerical aperture.
6 Coupling is not easy because of Coupling is easy because of larger
smaller diameter. diameter
7 Higher tolerance requirements Lower tolerance
on optical fiber connectors.
8 Long distance communication short distance communication
 Based on refractive index profile

Optical fiber

Step Index (SI) Graded Index (GI)

Single mode (SM) Multi mode (MM) Multi mode (MM)

Fiber types based on Refractive index profile.mp4

37
 Based on refractive index profile
Step index (SI) fiber:
 Refractive index of the core is constant though the core.
 In a step index fiber, the refractive index changes in a step fashion, from the
core –cladding boundary.
 Light rays propagating through the fiber are in the form of Meridional rays
which will cross the fiber core axis during every reflection at the core-cladding
boundary.
 The step index fibers propagate both single mode and multimode signals within
the fiber.
 Based on refractive index profile
Multimode SI fiber

Single mode SI fiber

• The refractive index profile is defined as –

r = Radial distance from fiber axis a = Core radius n1 = Refractive

index of core
n2 = Refractive index of cladding
 Single mode SI:
• Low intermodal dispersion as only one mode is allowed.
 Multimode SI:
• Allows propagation of finite number of guided modes.
• Number of modes dependent upon the physical parameters of the
fiber and wavelength of light which are included in normalized
frequency(V).
Number of modes guided, M=
• Most of the optical power is carried in the core region .
• The properties of the cladding won’t affect propagation of these
modes.
Multimode graded index fiber:
 In graded index fiber, refractive index of the core is maximum at the center
and then decreases gradually as a function of radial distance from the fiber
centre.
 Light rays propagating through the fiber are in the form of skew rays.
 The refractive index of the core is made to vary in the form of parabolic
manner such that the maximum refractive index is present at the centre of the
core.
Multimode graded index fiber:
 The refractive index profile is defined as –

• r = Radial distance from fiber axis a = Core radius n1 = Refractive index of core
• n2 = Refractive index of cladding α = Shape of index profile (profile parameter)
• If α = infinity-----RI profile is of step index fiber
• If α = 2-------------RI profile is parabolic
• If α = 1--------------RI profile is triangular

 Number of modes guided, N=

 Number Of Modes

α –Profile parameter
1. α = 2 for Graded index Fiber

2. α= ∞ for step index MM

fiber.
 Parameter Step index fiber Graded index fiber
1 Data rate Slow. Higher
2 Coupling efficiency higher lower

3 Ray path By total internal reflection. Light ray travels in oscillatory

fashion.
4 Index variation
5 Numerical aperture NA remains same Changes continuously with
. distance from fiber axis.
6 Material used Normally plastic or glass is Only glass is preferred
preferred.
7 Bandwidth efficiency 10 – 20 MHz/km 1 GHz/km

8 Pulse spreading Pulse spreading by fiber Pulse spreading is less

length is more.
9 Attenuation of light Less typically 0.34 dB/km More 0.6 to 1 dB/km at 1.3 μm.
at 1.3 μm.
10 Applications Subscriber local network Local and wide area networks
communication.
 Fiber Materials
 Material selection requirements for optical fibers:

1. Must be possible to make long, thin, flexible fibers.

2. Material must be transparent at a particular optical wavelength to guide
light efficiently.
3. Compatible materials that have slightly different refractive indices for core
and cladding must be available.

 Materials satisfying these requirements are Glasses & Plastics.

 Majority of fibers are made using Silica (SiO2) or Silicate.
 Glass fibers have more efficiency.
 Plastic fibers are used for short distance transmission in abusive environments
 Fiber Material types
1. Glass Fibers
– They are made by fusing Metal oxides, Sulfides & Selenides.
– The resulting material is a Randomly connected molecular network rather than
a well defined structure as found in crystalline materials.
– A consequence of this random order is that glasses do not have well defined
melting points.
– At room temperature, the glass is solid and when temperature increases, it
gradually begins to soften and until it becomes a viscous liquid.
– Optical fibers are made from oxide glasses and most popular is silica (SiO2).
– For making core (high refractive index), silica is doped with Germanium
dioxide (GeO2) or phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5 )
– For making Cladding (low refractive index), silica is doped with fluorine or
oxide such as Boric anhydride (B2O3).
– Fiber composition- core: GeO2 - SiO2 & cladding: SiO2
core: SiO2 & cladding: SiO2-B2O3
2.Halide Glass Fibers
– Fluoride glasses having low transmission loss .
– Fluoride glass is known by the name ZBLAN Since it is
constituents are ZrF4, BaF2, LaF3 A1F3, and NaF. Major Component:
ZrF4(54%)
– These materials add up to make the core of a glass fiber. By
replacing ZrF4 by HaF4 , the lower refractive index glass is
obtained.
3.Active Glass Fibers
– When rare earth material is doped with silica, we get the fiber called
active fiber.
– Rare earth elements used here are Erbium & Neodymium .
– Fibers have new optical and magnetic properties.
– These new properties allow the material to perform amplification,
attenuation, phase retardation on the light passing through it.
4. Plastic Clad Glass Fibers

– Used for short distance applications (Few hundred meters)

– High losses must be tolerable
– Silica Cores + Polymer (Plastic) Cladding
– Only used for step index fibers
– Larger core diameters are used compared with glass fibers, Cheap

5. Plastic Fibers

– Used for short distance applications (Up to hundred meters)

– Higher losses than plastic clad
– Cheaper
 Photonic crystal fibers (PCF)
• Initially called Holey fibers.
• It is also called Microstructure optical fiber
• Fine array of air holes along fiber cladding
• The two categories of PCF are
– Index guided fibers
– Photonic band gap fibers
 Index guided microfibers

• The fiber has a solid core that is surrounded by a cladding region which contains air holes
running along the length of the fiber.
• The hole diameter and pitch (space b/w two holes), and refractive index of the material
determine the light guiding properties of PCF.
• For proper light wave propagation, the refractive index of core is greater than that of
cladding.
• Although the core and cladding are made of same material (pure silica), the air holes
lower the effective refractive index of cladding, since n=1 for air and n=1.45 for silica.
• The advantages of this fiber are: it provide low loss, ability to transmit light with high
optical power.
• The optical filters can be created with these PCF. Filters are used to remove unwanted
signal and to propagate the light of certain wavelength.
 Photonic band gap fiber (PBG)

• In contrast to an index guiding PCF, here the fiber has a hollow core that is surrounded by a
cladding region which contains air holes running along the length of the fiber.
• The hole diameter and pitch (space b/w two holes), and refractive index of the material
determine the light guiding properties of PCF.
• For proper light wave propagation, the refractive index of core is greater than that of
cladding.
• The functional principle of PBG fiber is analogous to the role of a periodic crystalline lattice
in a semiconductor.
• In a PBG fiber, hollow air core acts as a defect in the photonic band gap structure, which
creates a region in which light can propagate.
• The fiber optic sensors and variable power attenuators can be created with these PCF.
• Here, the large hollow core are formed, so the structure is called air guiding hollow core
PBG.
 Fiber optic cables

 In all practical applications, fibers are incorporated

into cables
 Cables are used in variety of scenarios like:
1. Underground
2. Intrabuilding ducts
3. Buried in ground
4. Installed on outdoor poles
5. Submerged under water
 Cable properties are designed according to the application
1. Maximum allowable axial load & elongation
1. Extremely strong fibers tend to break even at 4% elongation
2. Generally good quality fibers exhibit breaking elongation of 0.5-
1%
3. Fiber elongations during cable manufacture and installation
should be limited to 0.1 – 0.2%.
4. Steel wires are used as reinforcement.
2. Brittleness
1. Outer sheath of an optical cable must be designed to protect
glass fibers from impact forces.
2. The outer sheath should not crush when subjected to side forces,
and it should provide protection from corrosive environmental
elements.
3. In underground installations, a heavy gauge metal outer sleeve
may also be required to protect against potential damage from
Two-fiber cable

 A fiber is first coated with a buffer material and placed loosely in a tough,
oriented polymer tube Such as polyethylene.
 For strength purpose this tube is surrounded by strands of aramid yarn which, in
turn, is encapsulated in a polyurethane jacket.
 A final outer jacket of polyurethane, polyethylene or nylon binds the two
encapsulated fiber units together.
Six-fiber cable

 The fiber units are bound onto the strength member with paper or plastic
binding tape, and then surrounded by an outer jacket