Research Methodology

All progress is born out of inquiry.

Doubt is better than overconfidence, as
it leads to enquiry and enquiry leads
to invention.
What is Research? RE + SEARCH
Re- once again
Search- examine closely

-A search for facts, their reason for

occurrence/ making, i. e. knowledge

- A scientific and systematic search for

pertinent information on a specific
topic

- Dictionary definition- careful

investigation or enquiry specially
- A voyage of discovery through search for new facts in any
- Curiosity, inquisitiveness, eagerness branch of knowledge
to know
- Intense need to know -Research is a structured enquiry that
- An original contribution to the existing utilizes acceptable scientific
stock of knowledge leading to its methodology to solve problems and
advancement create new knowledge that is
generally applicable.
The Basis of Research
When you say that you are undertaking a
research study to find answers to a question,
you are implying that the process;
1. is being undertaken within a framework of a
set of philosophies ( approaches);
2. uses procedures, methods and techniques that
have been tested for their validity and reliability;
3. is designed to be unbiased and objective .

Philosophies means approaches e.g. qualitative,

quantitative and the academic discipline in
which you have been trained.

Validity means that correct procedures have been

applied to find answers to a question. Reliability
refers to the quality of a measurement procedure
that provides repeatability and accuracy.

Unbiased and objective means that you have

taken each step in an unbiased manner and
drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability
and without introducing your own vested
interest. (Bias is a deliberate attempt to either
conceal or highlight something).
Components of Research

Defining and Redefining problems

Formulating hypothesis

Collecting facts

Organizing datas

Evaluating datas

ALL COMPONENTS REQUIRE Reaching conclusions

CAREFUL AND JUDICIOUS
ARTICULATION THROUGH A Suggesting solutions
STRUCTURED, LUCID LANGUAGE
Testing the solutions
Characteristics of Research
Rigorous- Ensure that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of
rigor varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and
within the social sciences.

Systematic- the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation

must
follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken
in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.

Valid and verifiable- Your findings must be correct and can be

verified by you and others, at any given point of time.

Empirical- means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard
evidence gathered from information collected from real life
experiences or observations.

Critical- Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods

employed is crucial to a research enquiry. The process of
investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The
process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand
critical scrutiny.
Significance of Research

- Inculcates scientific and inductive thinking

and promotes the development of logical
habits of thinking and organization

- Informs Action

- Applications in several fields across

subjects

-Government policies are framed only after

thorough research on socio- political-
economic factors

- Allows for predictions for future, in other

words, prepare for a better future
Why should you know
Research Methodology?

In this class you will learn to:

- Equip your thesis/ product/ design with
solid factual backing

- Develop disciplined thinking

- Understand the logic behind any research

problem/ product

- Increase the ability to evaluate results

with confidence

- Make a name for yourself in various

sectors, through research as a discipline
10 qualities of a Researcher
Interested, Motivated, Inquisitive

Analytical Mind

The ability to stay calm

Networking/ People’s person

Intelligence

Curiosity

Quick thinker

Commitment

Honesty

Excellent written and verbal communication skills

Sympathetic

Systematic

Ability to process anytime

Scholarly approach

Integration
Points to ponder upon
Types of Research
Research can be classified from three perspectives:

1. Application of research study

2. Objectives in undertaking the research

3. Inquiry mode employed

Types of Research
Application of research study
Pure research involves developing and testing
theories and hypotheses that are intellectually
challenging to the researcher but may or may not
have practical application at the present time or
in the future. The knowledge produced through
pure research is sought in order to add to the
existing body of research methods.

Applied research is done to solve specific,

practical questions; for policy formulation,
administration and understanding of a
phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is usually
descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis
of basic research. Applied research can be
carried out by academic or industrial
institutions. Often, an academic institution such
as a university will have a specific applied
research program funded by an industrial
partner interested in that program.
Types of Research
Objectives in undertaking the research
From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as
-descriptive
-correlational
-explanatory
-exploratory
Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation,
problem, phenomenon, service or program, or provides information
about , say, living condition of a community, or describes attitudes
towards an issue.
Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence
of a relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects
of a situation.
Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a
relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is
known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular
research study (feasibility study / pilot study).
In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories.
Types of Research
Inquiry Mode
From the process adopted to find answer to research questions – the two
approaches are:
- Structured approach
-Unstructured approach

Structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research.

Here everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample,
and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined. It is
more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon
by quantifying the variation. e.g. how many people have a particular problem?
How many people hold a particular attitude?
Unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.
This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It is more
appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without
quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon,
situation or attitude. e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical
enumeration of events, an account of different opinions different people have
about an issue, description of working condition in a particular industry.
Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and
weaknesses.
Research Process
Research Process

Step 1- Identifying Your Research

'Problem' — the 'What' and 'Why'
For most researchers, identifying exactly what
they are researching, and why, is the most
difficult part of the entire process. It is not
enough just to be interested in a subject and
want to write about it. For a research paper,
there has to be a particular reason why you are
writing about it, a particular perspective you
are taking, a particular aspect you will be
covering, and a particular conclusion you will be
drawing.
Research Process

Step 2- Review the Literature

The researcher must review the literature
related to the research problem. This step
provides foundational knowledge about the
problem area. The review of literature also
educates the researcher about what studies
have been conducted in the past, how these
studies were conducted, and the conclusions in
the problem area.
Research Process

Step 3- Clarify the Problem

Many times the initial problem identified in the

first step of the process is too large or broad in
scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher
clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of
the study. This can only be done after the
literature has been reviewed. The knowledge
gained through the review of literature guides
the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the
research project.
Research Process

Step 3- Clarify the Problem

Many times the initial problem identified in the

first step of the process is too large or broad in
scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher
clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of
the study. This can only be done after the
literature has been reviewed. The knowledge
gained through the review of literature guides
the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the
research project.
Research Process

Step 4- The formulation of objectives

Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. They
inform a reader what you want to attain through the study. It is
extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.
Objectives should be listed under two headings:
a) main objectives ( aims);
b) sub-objectives.
The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your
study. It is also a statement of the main associations and
relationships that you seek to discover or establish.
The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you
want to investigate within the main framework of your study.
-They should be numerically listed.
- Communicate to your readers your intention.
-Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study.
-Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.
Research Process

Step 4- Preparing the Research Design

Research design is the conceptual structure within
which research would be conducted. The function of
research design is to provide for the collection of
relevant information with minimal expenditure of
effort, time and money.

The preparation of research design, appropriate for

a particular research problem, involves the
consideration of the following :
1. Objectives of the research study.
2. Method of Data Collection to be adopted
3. Source of information—Sample Design
4. Tool for Data collection
5. Data Analysis-- qualitative and quantitative
Research Process

Step 5- Collecting Data

Having formulated the research problem,, developed
a study design, constructed a research instrument
and selected a sample, you then collect the data
from which you will draw inferences and
conclusions for your study. Depending upon your
plans, you might commence interviews, mail out a
questionnaire, conduct experiments and/or
make observations.
Research Process

Step 6- Processing and analyzing Data

Processing and analyzing data involves a number of
closely related operations which are performed with the
purpose of summarizing the collected data and
organizing these in a manner that they answer the
research questions (objectives).

The Data Processing operations are:

1. Editing- a process of examining the collected raw
data to detect errors and omissions and to correct
these when possible.

2. Classification- a process of arranging data in groups

or classes on the basis of common characteristics.
Research Process

Step 7- Reporting the Findings

Writing the report is the last, and for many, the
most difficult step of the research process. The
report informs the world what you have done,
what you have discovered and what conclusions
you have drawn from your findings. The report
should be written in an academic style. Language
should be formal and not journalistic.
Research Process

Step 8- Cite what you find using a

standard format
Give credit where credit is due; cite your
sources. Citing or documenting the sources
used in your research serves two purposes,
it gives proper credit to the authors of the
materials used, and it allows those who are
reading your work to duplicate your
research and locate the sources that you
have listed as references.
Research Process- Easy Way
1. Select a general topic that interests you in some way.
2. Go to an encyclopedia, or other reference source, to get an overview of the topic.
3. Make source cards for whatever sources you will use for information.
4. Using the general overview, begin to focus the topic into something you can cover well.
5. Write a statement of purpose about the focused topic.
6. Undertake study on primary and secondary sources
7. Conduct interviews, surveys through various tools
8. Do not forget to write the biographical details of the respondents and participants
9. Use data evaluation tools and analyze their findings
10. Find the sources in the library, on the computer, etc. Make a source card for each one
you use.
11. Change your statement of purpose into a draft thesis statement.
12. Make an outline of your headings.
13. Refocus your thesis statement if necessary.
14. Write the body of your paper from your notes.
15. Cite any necessary information with parenthetical citations.
16. Write your introduction and conclusion.
17. Write your Works Cited (it is similar to a bibliography).
18. Create a title page.
19. Evaluate your work.
20. Turn in your paper on time.
Research Process- Easy Way
Data Collection Method-
Primary Sources

Primary sources provide first-hand

testimony or direct evidence concerning a
topic under investigation.

Printed or Published Texts They are created by witnesses or recorders

Books & Pamphlets who experienced the events or conditions
Serials (newspapers, periodicals, being documented. Often these sources are
created at the time when the events or
magazines)
conditions are occurring, but primary
Government Documents sources can also include autobiographies,
Manuscript and archival material memoirs, and oral histories recorded later.
Maps
Artifacts Primary sources are characterized by their
Visual Materials content, regardless of whether they are
Music available in original format, in microfilm/
Sound Recordings microfiche, in digital format, spoken or in
published format.
Oral history
Types of Primary Sources
Autobiographies and memoirs
Diaries, personal letters, and correspondence
Interviews, surveys, and fieldwork
Internet communications on email, blogs, listservs, and newsgroups
Photographs, drawings, and posters
Works of art and literature
Books, magazine and newspaper articles and ads published at the
time
Public opinion polls
Speeches and oral histories
Original documents (birth certificates, property deeds, trial
transcripts)
Research data, such as census statistics
Official and unofficial records of organizations and government
agencies
Artifacts of all kinds, such as tools, coins, clothing, furniture, etc.
Audio recordings, DVDs, and videorecordings
Government documents (reports, bills, proclamations, hearings, etc.)
Patents
Technical reports
Scientific journal articles reporting experimental research results
Methods of Primary Data Collection
Observation Method

Primary data is gathered by investigator’s own

direct observation of relevant people, actions
and situations without asking from the
respondent.

Types of Observation

1. Structured – for descriptive research

2. Unstructured—for exploratory research
3. Participant Observation
4. Non- participant observation
5. Disguised observation

Limitations

- feelings, beliefs and attitudes that motivate

buying behaviour and
infrequent behaviour cannot be observed.
- expensive method
Methods of Primary Data Collection
Survey Method

Approach most suited for gathering descriptive

information.
Structured Surveys use formal lists of questions
asked of all respondents in the same way.
ADVANTAGES Unstructured Surveys let the interviewer probe
-can be used to collect many different kinds respondents and guide the interview according
of information to their answers.
-Quick and low cost as compared to
observation and experimental method.
LIMITATIONS
Survey research may be Direct or Indirect.
-Respondent’s reluctance to answer Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct
questions asked by unknown interviewers questions about behaviors and thoughts.
about things they consider private. e.g. Why don’t you eat at MacDonalds?
-Busy people may not want to take the time Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask:
-may try to help by giving pleasant answers “What kind of people eat at MacDonald’s?”
-unable to answer because they cannot From the response, the researcher may be able
remember or never gave a thought to what
they do and why
to discover why the consumer avoids
-may answer in order to look smart or well MacDonald’s. It may suggest factors of which the
informed. consumer is not consciously aware.
Methods of Primary Data Collection

CONTACT METHODS
Information may be collected by:
Mail
Telephone
Personal interview
Methods of Primary Data Collection

Mail Questionnaires

Advantages
-can be used to collect large amounts of
information at a low cost per respondent.
-respondents may give more honest
answers to personal questions on a mail
questionnaire
-no interviewer is involved to bias the
respondent’s answers.
-convenient for respondent’s who can
answer when they have time
-good way to reach people who often
travel

Limitations
-not flexible
-take longer to complete than telephone
or personal interview
-response rate is often very low
Methods of Primary Data Collection
Telephone Interview
Advantages
- quick method
- more flexible as interviewer can explain
questions not understood by the respondent
- depending on respondent’s answer they can
skip some Qs and probe more on others
- allows greater sample control
-response rate tends to be higher than mail

Limitations
-Cost per respondent higher
-Some people may not want to discuss personal
Qs with interviewer
-Interviewer’s manner of speaking may affect the
respondent’s answers
-Different interviewers may interpret and record
response in a variety of ways due to the lack of
physical presence
-under time pressure, data may be entered
without actually interviewing
 Methods of Primary Data Collection
Personal Interview
Advantages
- allows researcher to reach known people in a short
period of time.
- only method of reaching people whose names and
addresses are unknown
- involves talking to people at homes, offices, on the
street, or in shopping malls. -interviewer must gain the
interviewee’s cooperation
- time involved may range from a few minutes to several
hours( for longer surveys compensation may be offered)
--involves the use of judgmental sampling i.e. interviewer
has guidelines as to whom to “intercept”, such as 25%
under age 20 and 75% over age 60
This takes two forms- Limitations
Individual- Intercept -Room for error and bias on the part of the interviewer
interviewing who may not be able to
Group - Focus Group correctly judge age, race etc.
Interviewing -Interviewer may be uncomfortable talking to certain
ethnic or age groups.
Methods of Primary Data Collection

The Questionnaire
A questionnaire consists of a set of questions
presented to a respondent for answers. The
respondents read the questions, interpret what
is expected and then write down the answers
themselves.

Because there are many ways to ask questions,

the questionnaire is very flexible. Questionnaire
should be developed and tested carefully before
being used on a large scale.
There are three basic types of questionnaire:
• Closed –ended
• Open-ended
• Combination of both
Methods of Primary Data Collection
Closed –ended Questionnaire
Closed ended questions include all possible answers/prewritten response
categories, and respondents are asked to choose among them.
-e.g. multiple choice questions, scale questions
- Type of questions used to generate statistics in quantitative research.
- As these follow a set format, and most responses can be entered easily into
a computer for ease of analysis, greater numbers can be distributed.

Open-ended Questionnaire
-Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words.
-Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but instead leaves a blank
section for the respondents to write in an answer.
-Whereas closed –ended questionnaires might be used to find out how many
people use a service, open-ended questionnaires might be used to find out
what people think about a service.
-As there are no standard answers to these questions, data analysis is
more complex.
-As it is opinions which are sought rather than numbers, fewer
questionnaires need to be distributed.
Combination of both
-This way it is possible to find out how many people use a service and what
they think of the service in the same form.
-Begins with a series of closed –ended questions, with boxes to tick or scales
to rank, and thenfinish with a section of open-ended questions or more
detailed response.
Make a Questionnaire