Unit-1 Computer Hardware

History of the Evolution of Computers

Subject: Fundamentals of Information Technology

For B.COM (Hons.) Programme

Compiled By:
Dr Leena Patel
Assistant Professor
ITNU, Nirma University

Abstract
If you wish to have a better understanding of any subject, you should go through its history too.
 History of the Evolution of Computers
• It goes without saying that we can learn a lot from past history, such as
the well-known truth "no body is immortal." A human being may survive
for a somewhat longer period, but finally there is an end to it.
• Next, the evil characters in the history had bad endings. Some of them are
Ravana, Kansa, Duryodhana, Hannibal, Hitler, Saddam Husain, and so on.
• Another reality we notice "the truth has always emerged"; Pandit Nehru
was more close to Gandhi as compared to Saradar Patel; Manmohan Singh
is an honest person; honesty is the best policy;...
• Having said that, let us come to our topic, "History of the Evolution of
Computers." A computer is a device for doing arithmetic, namely addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation. Human beings
have always wanted to have it for doing calculations.
• Calculations are not only important in our day-to-day lives, but they are
also vital in scientific work.
• In the next slide, we discuss an example in support of the previous
statement.
• Today we can forecast the weather quite ahead of time
for the benefit of farmers, especially; this could
become possible only because of modern computers
using numerical forecast models with built-in
conservations of momentum, mass, and energy along
with ideal gas law, past weather data, observational
data collected by Doppler radar, radio-sonde, weather
satellites, buoys, and other instruments. This job is not
feasible at all manually because human beings are
bound to commit mistakes in calculations. Moreover,
they will consume so much time that predictions will
become irrelevant by the time they are known. That is
why a computing device is the need of the hour. Based
on this example, we can foresee that the device should
have the following characteristics:
 Characteristics of the hypothetical computing
device
• It should be easy to operate.
• It should consume little time.
• It should be free from errors.
• It should be reliable.
Today, we do have this device; however, it could become
possible through the dedicated efforts of two millennia. In fact,
we were looking for a computing device, but the device in our
hands today can process the data as well, which is a bonus.
Computations have become rather secondary at present, as we
use them for 20% of the time for this purpose, while they are
being used for 80% of the time for processing the data (store,
retrieve, and process), and that is why they are now also known
as microprocessors. A brief history of all such devices will make
our understanding better, but before that, let us elaborate on
• The device should be user-friendly, just like a scooter or a
car, which can be operated by a person irrespective of their
ignorance of machine parts.
• The device should consume little time; otherwise, the
outcome of the calculations may be irrelevant to the user for
being too late.
• There is no place for errors in the calculations, or else it will
be hard to depend on the output.
• Even after lots of repeated calculations, if one does not
detect any errors in the results, the device becomes reliable.
This is similar to the case of the withdrawal of money
through ATMs (automated teller machines); in the beginning,
one is used to recount it but, when no deviations are noted,
even after a large number of withdrawals, people stop
recounting; it becomes now reliable.
• Let us now concentrate on the first device on the next slide.
The first device that comes to our knowledge is called an
abacus, a digital device based on two digits 1 and 5;
modern computers are also digital, but based on digits 0
and 1. The abacus was developed in China around 350
B.C.; it is basically a wooden frame divided into two
parts, Heaven and Earth, separated by a divider beam.
There are a total of eleven wires, and each wire has two
beads in the heaven part, while the earth part has five
beads. When these beads are displaced close to the
divider, the Heaven portion bead carries a value of five,
while those from the Earth depict one. As per decimal
digits syntax, when one moves from right to left in a
number such as 1234, the positional values are,
respectively, 4 units, 3 tens, 2 hundreds, 1 thousand,
and so on. A typical abacus image is shown in the next
slide, followed by another slide depicting the number
Abacus: a digital device based on two digits
1 and 5
An Abacus depicting 123456789
• The next attempt to simplify the calculations was
made by John Napier (1550–1617), a Scottish
mathematician who invented the logarithm. The use of
logarithms enabled him to transform multiplication,
division, and exponentiation problems, respectively,
into problems of addition, subtraction, and
multiplication.
1. Log(mn)=Log(m)+Log(n)
2. Log(m/n)=Log(m)-Log(n)
3. Log(m^n)=nLog(m)
• This simplification is rather inappropriate now as
far as calculations are concerned, but they do have
historical importance as well as being essential from a
teaching point of view and for algebraic manipulations.
John Napier (1550-1617)
• The above logarithm invention was later adopted
by William Oughtred (1574–1660) to develop
SLIDE RULE, used primarily for multiplication and
division and also for functions such as exponents,
nth roots, logarithms, and trigonometry, but
typically not for addition or subtraction. The slide
rule was very popular amongst scientists and
engineers until 1980. The slide rule, also known
colloquially in the United States as a slip stick, is
a mechanical analog computer. As graphical
analog calculators, slide rules are closely related
to nomograms, but the former are used for
general calculations, whereas the latter are used
for application-specific computations.
William Oughtred (1574-1660)
Slide Rule
• Subsequently, another device, Pascaline, was
designed and built by the French mathematician-
philosopher Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) during 1642
and 1644. Pascal had also proposed a method to
carry out subtraction through the addition process,
as follows:
47-2347+(100-23)-100=(47+77)-100
=124-10024
The number is the complement of 23; this is added
to 47; the complement of a number could be read
through the number tables available at that time.
The last step is rather straightforward to perform.
Modern computers also carry out subtraction
processes through additions since the corresponding
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
Pascaline
• An important component of the computer, that is,
memory, came into the limelight due to French
weaver and merchant Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1752–
1834). He invented the automated loom in 1804 by
making use of punched cards to produce desired
patterns on the cloth fabric. The function of the loom
was biased by the absence or presence of holes on
the cards. Thus, Jacquard's loom paved the way for
the modern storage mechanism on the punched
cards, with the binary coding system 0 and 1; 0 for the
presence of a hole and 1 for its absence.
• The next slide has the image of Jacquard, followed by
an image of a worker punching the card. A
subsequent slide shows the image of a Jacquard loom.
Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834)
Punched card coding
Jacquard Loom
• Next, Charles Babbage (1791–1871), a British polymath and
the father of modern computers, has played a key role in the
evolution of computers. He developed and demonstrated a
working model of a mechanical computer called the Difference
Engine in 1822. This machine was based on the principle that
the difference between equidistant points represented by a
polynomial at a certain stage becomes a constant; for example,
let us take a simple second-order polynomial.

The values of this polynomial at equidistant points and the

differences between successive points are produced in a table in
the next slide, where in the 3rd column we find the difference
becoming a constant; so, in the case of an nth-degree polynomial,
such a constant will appear in the (n+1)th column; thus, based on
this observation, one can fix the degree of a polynomial.
• The subsequent slide shows an image of Babbage.
x F(x)=x^2+x+1 F(x+1)-F(x) F(x+2)-F(x+1)-
{F(x+1)-F(x)}
1 F(1)=3 4 2
2 F(2)=7 6 2
3 F(3)=13 8 2
4 F(4)=21 10 2
5 F(5)=31 12
6 F(6)=43
Charles Babbage (1791-1871)
“Father of modern computer”
 Analytical Engine
• In view of the limited applications of the difference
engine, the concept of Jacquard memory was added to
it to upgrade it as an analytical engine, the blue print of
the first mechanical general-purpose computer
supposed to operate using steam. The machine on the
drawing boards at the Science Museum in London is the
Babbage Analytical Engine, a room-size mechanical
behemoth that its inventor envisioned but never built.
In 1991, the London Science Museum built a complete
and working specimen of Babbage's Difference Engine
No. 2, a design that incorporated refinements Babbage
discovered during the development of the Analytical
Engine.
 A trial model of a part of the Analytical Engine,
envisioned by Charles Babbage, as displayed at the
Science Museum (London)
Henry Prevost Babbage (1824–1918) Analytical Engine
Mill, built in 1910, in the London Science Museum;
Henry is the youngest son of Charles Babbage.
Two types of punched cards were used to program the
machine. Foreground: 'operational cards', for
inputting instructions; background: 'variable cards', for
inputting data.
 It is quite amazing on the subject of the similarity of an
analytical engine to a modern computer. This also had the
following five units:
1. Input for feeding numbers.
2. Output for the final results.
3. Store for storing numbers.
4. Mill for performing calculations.
5. Control for supervision over all the units.
• Lady Ada Lovelace did the programming part.
• This could also perform logical operations, viz., less than (<),
equal to (=), and greater than (>), as well as not equal to (<>);
the outcome of this operation would be either true or false.
• This was thought to operate on steam, eliminating human
involvement.
• The term engine was adopted because it was the era of Sadi
Ada Lovelace (1815-1852)
 Babbage’s Folly
Charles Babbage was never satisfied with his own
achievements. He was of the opinion that he
could improve over it further and further, and this
was the rationale behind Analytical Engine not
being brought into the marketplace. Otherwise,
the world would have gotten the modern
computer around 100 years ago, i.e., in 1833. This
fact has been termed Babbage's Folly, that is the
foolishness of Babbage. On the other hand, at the
same time, he is also credited with being the
father of modern computers; society always
acknowledges the hard work done for her.
 Although the following discoveries had nothing to do with
computers when they were discovered, but today they do have
their roles.
• 1844 Telegraph by Samuel Morse
• 1867 Typewriter by Christopher Sholes
• 1876 Telephone by Alexander Graham Bell
• 1889 Hollerith card and tabulator by Herman Hollerith
• This tabulator machine, a data processor, punched the cards,
processed them by detecting holes through electric contacts,
and performed the function of selecting and sorting the cards
for the 1890 Census of the United States population of 6.3
crores.
• 1896 Herman Hollerith's Tabulating Machine Company (TMC)
became the International Business Machines (IBM) Corporation
in 1924.
• The images of the above four geniuses are successively depicted
in the slides to follow.
Samuel Morse (1791-1872)
Christopher Sholes (1819-1890)
Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922)
Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)
Hollerith Tabulating Machine
Hollerith Punch Card
ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator
World War II started on September 1, 1939, and the United
States of America also got involved in April 1943. The
American Army was looking for ballistic tables or ballistic
charts, a tool that predicts the trajectory of a projectile, for
which mechanical differential analyzers were taking too
much time. JW Mauchly and JP Eckert submitted a proposal
to the US Army for an electronic difference analyzer, which
was completed in 1946 using 17500 vacuum tubes, 70000
resistors, 10000 capacitors, and 6000 switches. Its weight
was 30 tons, it occupied 7,000 square feet of space, and it
consumed 174 kW; air conditioners were installed to avoid
overheating. The Hollerith cards were used both for inputs
and outputs. It was named ENIAC (Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Calculator) and designated as the first
computer.
JW Mauchly (1907-80) and JP Eckert (1919-95)
• The ENIAC was programmed by connecting wires
between units of the computer and setting
switches in such a way that the program could be
executed. Each time a program was changed, the
wiring had to be completely recreated. Thus, it
could be operated by its designers only. Moreover,
it was difficult to locate the fused vacuum tubes
once it so happens; the mean time between
failures was around 30 minutes to 1 hour. ENIAC
was prominently used for
• Ballistic trajectory tables
• Weather predictions
• Atomic Energy Calculations
• Random number studies
 Generations of computers
Any major development in computer
technology is referred to as a new generation
of computers, and the developments so far
can be classified into five generations as
follows:
Generation Period Technology
FIRST 1946-1955 Vacuums Tubes
SECOND 1955-1965 Transistors
THIRD 1965-1975 Integrated Circuits (ICs)
FOURTH 1975-1988 Microprocessors/Large
Scale Integrations
FIFTH Since 1988 Artificial Intelligence
 Second Generation (1955-65)
• Vacuum tubes of first-generation computers were replaced by
transistors, a semiconductor device having three terminals
capable of amplifying an electric current or voltage that is
applied to one of the terminals and output through another
terminal, invented by William Bradford Shockley, John
Bardeen, and Walter Houser Brattain in 1947.
• This reduced the size 200 times.
• Thereby, power consumption and, correspondingly, heat
production decreased drastically.
• Symbolic programming (assembly language) and higher-level
(fortran: formula transcription) languages were developed
during this period.
• This brought the computer closer to an ordinary man.
• The mean time between failures (MTBF) was around 10 hours.
Shockley (1910–89), Bardeen (1908–91), and Brattain (1902–
87); Winners of the 1956 Nobel Prize
 Third Generation (1965-75)
• Transistors can work as switches, amplifiers, capacitors, and resistors,
but not as inductance. They are the components of an electronic circuit
in a computer; computers do not need inductance. Thus, by fusing
around 10 transistors (small scale integration, or SSI), integrated circuits
were developed by Jack Kilby (1958) and employed in computers; this
further reduced the size of the computer.
• Secondary storage devices such as magnetic tapes and disks came into
existence.
• Batch Processing: Many programs are fed, and one by one they are
processed.
• Time Sharing: Software was developed so that many terminals were
attached and it shared the time amongst them, whereas the operator
sitting on each terminal thought the whole computer was under his
control.
• The software industry came into existence. BASIC, COBOL, etc. languages
were developed.
• MTBF is around 100 hours.
Jack Kilby (1923-2005)
Nobel Prize - 2000
 Fourth Generation (1975-88)
• Period of active research in computer technology: Large
Scale Integration (LSI) (1000 transistors), Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) (10000 transistors), and Ultra Large
Scale Integration (ULSI) (1 lakh transistors) achieved on a
silicon chip (1/4" x 2") containing an entire central
processing unit.
• Semiconductor memories replaced magnetic core
memories.
• Computer size condensed up to that of a palm.
• MTBF is around 1000 hours.
• Data communication over the telephone.
 Fifth Generation (1988-
• A lot of work is still in progress.
• Major shortcoming: lack of thinking; the
computer cannot think by itself.
• Artificial intelligence
• Automatic computer programming
• Chips for various functions are now implanted
in the human body.
• It has started recognizing voices.
• It has started correcting spellings.
• It can take care of grammar and punctuation.
 Computers in our country, India
• Tata Institute of Fundamental Research: 1955
• Indian Statistical Institute, Jadavpur University: 1963
• Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai: 1964
• Banaras Hindu University (Varanasi), under the
supervision of Professor PC Sood, 1978
• 1978: The Janata government asked IBM to leave
India, which halted its development in India.
• In 1991 the Narasimha Rao government liberated
the economy, which opened the door for the
development of computer education and industry in
India.
 Computer Industry
• Chips companies: INTEL (Pentium), AMD
(Singapore), NEC (Japan)
• Computer Manufacturers: IBM, COMPAQ,
HEWLETT-PACKARD, APPLE
• Computer assembling: HCL, Zenith, Vintron,
Microtek
• Software Industry: TCS, INFOSYS, WIPRO
 Introduction to the computers
The computer works as a system. A system is a group of integrated
parts that have the common purpose of achieving some objective. It has the
following characteristics:
• A system has more than one element.
• All the elements of the system are logically related.
• All the elements of the system work in cohesion so that the system goal is
achieved.
The human body is a good example of the system; it consists of
several systems, such as the digestion system, nervous system, respiratory
system, skeletal system, immune system, urinary system, and so on; they work
in cohesion, thereby ensuring that the human being survives and performs its
duties. Another good example is the combination of a car and its driver; here
also, there is more than one element; they are related and work in cohesion to
achieve the goal. A group of mosquitoes does not satisfy the criteria of being a
system; of course, there are more than one mosquito; they are related, but
they do not work in cohesion; it is rather random.
The circuits of the computer are based on Boolean algebra,
and its operation is based on a binary number (0 and 1)
system. Since the computer is a system, it consists of a
number of components or units that are connected to each
other and interact or communicate with each other to
accomplish the objective; these various components are
1. Input unit
2. Central Processing unit (CPU)
i. Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
ii. Timing and Control Unit
iii. Primary memory unit
3. Output unit
4. Secondary or auxiliary memory
5. Peripheral devices
 Usually, all the units that are not part of the
CPU but are connected to it are called
peripherals. This means that I/O units and
secondary memory units are all peripherals.
INPUT UNITS: This device is used to transfer data
and instructions to the computer. These
devices translate the information from the
language in which the user is working into a
language that the computer can understand.
Usually, this language is in the form of binary
codes zero and one. The most commonly used
input devices are mentioned in the next slide.
• Key board
• Card reader
• Scanning devices such as bar code readers,
optical mark recognition (OMR), and magnetic
ink character recognition (MICR)
• Voice input devices: microphone
• Pointing devices such as a mouse, light pen,
touch screen, and digitizer
• Video input devices such as PC video cameras
and digital cameras
 Arithmetic and logic unit
It performs the arithmetic operations, viz., addition (+),
subtraction (-), multiplication (*), division (/), and
exponentiation (**). For this, operands are brought from
memory to the ALU, which perform the operation and
sends the result back to memory. In computer
programming, an operand is a term used to describe any
object that is capable of being manipulated. For example,
in "1 + 2," the "1" and "2" are the operands, and the plus
symbol is the operator. One can also perform
comparisons, which are called logical operations: equal
to (=), less than (<), greater than (>), and not equal to
(<>). The result of the comparison is either true or false.
The outcome decides the flow of the program. This
information is stored in memory for future use.
 Timing and control unit
This unit coordinates and controls the activities of
all the units on the computer. It is a part of the
CPU. The main functions performed by the
control unit are as follows:
1. It can obtain instructions stored in memory.
2. It can understand the received instructions.
3. It ensures that data reaches the correct place
and at the correct time.
4. It fetches the next instruction after the previous
instruction has been executed.
 Primary memory (Main memory)
Memory is the storage area of the computer.
The primary memory is the working place of
the computer, which stores instructions for
processing data and intermediate results. The
CPU can directly access the memory at a high
speed. It can be of two types:
• ROM (read-only memory)
• RAM (Random Access Memory); this is also
called read and write memory.
 ROM
• The CPU can only read its contents.
Permanent information is stored here that
cannot be changed.
• Instructions for starting the computer are
stored here; it becomes operative as soon as
power is turned on.
• It is non-volatile; that is, information is
retained even after power is turned off.
 RAM
• It is also called read/write memory and is used for
user programs and data for immediate use.
• It is volatile; that is, the contents are lost after the
computer is shut off.
• It is measured in gigabytes (GB) and megabytes (MB).
Most commonly, PCs have 8GB of RAM.
• The amount of RAM affects the processing speed.
More RAM means more data and programs can be
loaded and accessed faster; it is just like a highway
having more lanes for faster traffic.
 Output unit
It is a peripheral device that assists in the process of
displaying or printing the results of computer
operations. These are
• Visual display unit: cathode ray tube monitor
• Printers
• Plotters
• Speakers
• Cards
The next slide shows a schematic diagram of the
working of a computer system, followed by the
equivalent pictorial view in the subsequent slide.
 Schematic diagram of working of a computer system

Memory Unit

Input Unit Timing & Output

Control Unit Unit

Data transfer path

Arithmetic & Logic Unit Control Path
Pictorial diagram of working of a computer system
 A Sample Program in FORTRAN Language
X=7
Y=6
IF(Y.EQ.0) GO TO 10
Z=X/Y
WRITE(*,*) X, Y, Z
10 STOP
END
Let us now discuss the execution of the above simple
program. This is meant to find the ratio x/y, provided y ≠ 0. The
sequence of instructions is called a program. There are seven
instructions in it. Each instruction will require one Hollerith card,
and thus, there will be a total of seven cards for the whole
program. They can be punched on Hollerith cards through a
punching machine; of course, these punching machines are now
out of date. It moves as follows, as mentioned in the next slide:.
a. These cards are inserted into a card reader input device, which reads and
converts them into machine language.
b. It reads the first instruction and puts the value of a variable named x
equal to 7 in memory.
c. It moves to the next line. Here it reads that y = 6, so in the memory, a
value of 6 is stored with a variable named y.
d. Since the program is meant for calculating the ratio x/y, it is important for
the programmer to ensure that the denominator y is not equal to zero;
otherwise, the ratio x/y will not be defined. This is checked through the
third instruction. Its outcome will be either true or false. If it happens to
be true, then the third line instructs “go to line numbered 10 directly,”
which stops it, followed by the end of the program.
e. If the result of the comparison is false, that y is not equal to zero, then it
moves to the next instruction and calculates the ratio x/y, and the value of
z so obtained is transferred to the memory.
f. Next, it fetches the instruction where it is supposed to write the values of
x, y, and z in the output.
g. The next instruction stops the program, followed by its end.

This is the way a program is executed.

Application areas of the computers
Computers are finding use in almost all areas. This could
be possible due to the characteristics listed below.
• It has a high speed of processing.
• It can work at a very high level of accuracy.
• It works with great reliability.
• It has the capability of remembering large volumes of
data with the help of secondary memories.
• It never gets tiring.
• Of course, it cannot rectify erroneous instructions.
 Major applications areas
Banks, companies, insurances, shops, railways,
airports, architecture, education, space
research, scientific research, communication,
teaching, meetings, accounting, costing,
budgeting, planning, staffing, online
processing, typing and editing, report
generation and presentation, data analysis,
spelling and grammar, printing, examinations,
and so on.
Experiment: Switch on the computer, learn
about it, and shut down the computer.
As you know, a computer is basically a system that has
more than one unit; all the units are logically
connected, and they work together to achieve the
objective. These units are
• System unit
• Monitor
• Key board
• Mouse
• Uninterrupted power supply (UPS)
The first four units are shown in the next slide,
whereas UPS is shown in the succeeding slide.
System Unit
Monitor

Key board Mouse

Uninterrupted Power Supply
 Power requirement of a computer
• A system unit consumes 110 watts while it is in the
process of booting or obeying a command. This fact is
acknowledged through the display of either an
hourglass watch, a spinning wheel, or the Sudarshan
Chakra of Lord Krishna. As soon as they disappear, it
signifies that the booting process is accomplished or
that the assigned job has been finished. Subsequently,
the power consumption comes down to 55 watts. The
monitor consumes 75 watts while its screen is
glowing; otherwise, it is almost zero. The power
requirements for the mouse, keyboard, etc. are
marginal. The UPS is 500 watts; its input and output
are both alternating currents.
An Hourglass Watch
 UPS
We notice that our power requirement for operating
the computer is 110 + 75 = 185 watts, whereas the UPS
wattage is 500, a substantial number. This is because
whenever any electrical appliance is switched on, the initial
current that enters is known as inrush current, which is
usually around three times the normal operating value. This
is the reason for its wattage to be around three times the
power of the device, as shown by the relation
power=voltage X current; here voltage is constant while
current is three-times. The inrush current heats the
appliance; its resistance too increases, and thereby the value
of the corresponding current decreases and stabilizes at a
lower value of current, according to Ohm's law: current =
voltage/resistance. UPS is kept under charging condition
24x7.
 Booting
As soon as the power supply is switched on, the
computer checks its parts, then gives a signal in the
form of a beep sound, signifying that the booting
process is now going to start. Here it loads all the
software required for the functioning of the computer,
from read-only memory (ROM) to random access
memory (RAM). Once again, Hourglass appears on the
desktop for a short while and disappears as soon as
booting is over. Beep sounds are very noteworthy, and
an expert may judge the status of a computer through
this sound, just like a scooter or car mechanic judges
its working through the sound of a machine. Now the
desktop is ready for the next job.
 Desktop
• A desktop is a computer display area that
represents the kinds of objects one might find
on top of a physical desk, including
documents, phone books, telephones,
reference sources, writing and drawing tools,
project folders, and icons, which are short cuts
to various software frequently being used by
its user.
• The bottom bar, known as the task bar, has a
start button, clock, date, etc.
 The desktop

Icons

Taskbar
 Open MS Word
• The mouse is a hand-held device that transmits your
commands to the computer by controlling the
movement of the cursor or pointer on the computer
screen. • As you move the mouse, the pointer on the
screen moves in the same direction. • The basic
mouse has two buttons, as shown in the picture. Its
application will be described in the sequel.
• Bring the pointer through the mouse on the start,
press the left button, and an upward menu will
appear showing various options. Go to MS Word and
click. MS Word software will appear on the desktop.
 Shut down
• Once the assigned job is finished, the computer should
be properly shut down. For this purpose, once again,
go to the start button. Click on it. There will be two
options available. Restart and shut down. Select shut
down and click on it. The computer gets properly shut.
• The restart option is meant to shut down the
computer and then restart it. Sometimes the computer
becomes unresponsive or new software is loaded, in
which case this option of restart becomes mandatory.
• In case of power failure, UPS provides power for 10–20
minutes to achieve it.
 Binary States and Their Utility
• Binary states are the two possible states
associated with each item presented below in
the table. Each one of them satisfies the
criteria of being a system; in each case, there
is more than one element, they are related to
each other, and they work in cohesion to
achieve the goal; these are required to be
satisfied as per the definition of a system.
Serial Number Item First state Second State Utility

1 Binary Digits (Bits) 1 0 Mathematics, Boolean algebra, Binary number

calculations, Coding of alphabets, symbols, decimal
numbers, arithmetic operations, special characters,
etc

2 Light bulbs ON OFF Study of gates

3 Switches ON OFF Study of gates

4 Circuit Pulses Low voltage pulse Marginal voltage pulse Operation of computers, Working of human brains
through synapses

5 Transistors Conducting Non-conducting Construction of computers

6 Magnets Magnetized Non-magnetized Working of non-volatile memory, Fabrication of

floppy, working of Read Only Memory (ROM)

7 Capacitors Charged Uncharged Volatile memory, working of Random Access

Memory (RAM)

8 Surfaces Pit Land Working of Compact Disc

9 Human beings Male Female People and thereby the whole world around us
10 Matter Matter Anti-matter Building block of the universe
 Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges his gratitude to all
those whose text, images, etc. are reproduced
in this PowerPoint presentation, "History of
the Evolution of Computers," for the benefit of
the students at large. Please mail your
suggestions to dca_bhu@yahoo.com.