Chapter 8

 Design Concepts
Slide Set to accompany
Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e
by Roger S. Pressman

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Design
 Mitch Kapor, the creator of Lotus 1-2-3,
presented a “software design manifesto”
in Dr. Dobbs Journal. He said:
 Good software design should exhibit:
 Firmness: A program should not have any
bugs that inhibit its function.
 Commodity: A program should be suitable for
the purposes for which it was intended.
 Delight: The experience of using the program
should be pleasurable one.

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Analysis Model -> Design Model

Component-
scenario-based flow-oriented Level Design
elements elements
use-cases- text dataflowdiagrams
use-casediagrams control-flowdiagrams
activitydiagrams processingnarratives
swimlanediagrams
Interface Design
AnalysisModel

class-based behavioral Architectural Design

elements elements
classdiagrams statediagrams
analysispackages sequencediagrams
CRCmodels Data/ Class Design
colaborationdiagrams

DesignModel

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Design and Quality
 the design must implement all of the explicit
requirements contained in the analysis model,
and it must accommodate all of the implicit
requirements desired by the customer.
 the design must be a readable, understandable
guide for those who generate code and for
those who test and subsequently support the
software.
 the design should provide a complete picture of
the software, addressing the data, functional,
and behavioral domains from an
implementation perspective.
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Quality Guidelines
 A design should exhibit an architecture that (1) has been created using
recognizable architectural styles or patterns, (2) is composed of components
that exhibit good design characteristics and (3) can be implemented in an
evolutionary fashion
 For smaller systems, design can sometimes be developed linearly.
 A design should be modular; that is, the software should be logically
partitioned into elements or subsystems
 A design should contain distinct representations of data, architecture,
interfaces, and components.
 A design should lead to data structures that are appropriate for the classes to
be implemented and are drawn from recognizable data patterns.
 A design should lead to components that exhibit independent functional
characteristics.
 A design should lead to interfaces that reduce the complexity of connections
between components and with the external environment.
 A design should be derived using a repeatable method that is driven by
information obtained during software requirements analysis.
 A design should be represented using a notation that effectively communicates
its meaning.

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Design Principles
 The design process should not suffer from ‘tunnel vision.’
 The design should be traceable to the analysis model.
 The design should not reinvent the wheel.
 The design should “minimize the intellectual distance” [DAV95] between
the software and the problem as it exists in the real world.
 The design should exhibit uniformity and integration.
 The design should be structured to accommodate change.
 The design should be structured to degrade gently, even when aberrant
data, events, or operating conditions are encountered.
 Design is not coding, coding is not design.
 The design should be assessed for quality as it is being created, not after
the fact.
 The design should be reviewed to minimize conceptual (semantic) errors.

From Davis [DAV95]

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Fundamental Concepts
 Abstraction—data, procedure, control
 Architecture—the overall structure of the software
 Patterns—”conveys the essence” of a proven design solution
 Separation of concerns—any complex problem can be more easily handled if
it is subdivided into pieces
 Modularity—compartmentalization of data and function
 Hiding—controlled interfaces
 Functional independence—single-minded function and low coupling
 Refinement—elaboration of detail for all abstractions
 Aspects—a mechanism for understanding how global requirements affect
design
 Refactoring—a reorganization technique that simplifies the design
 OO design concepts—Appendix II
 Design Classes—provide design detail that will enable analysis classes to be
implemented

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Data Abstraction
door

manufacturer
model number
type
swing direction
inserts
lights
type
number
weight
opening mechanism

implemented as a data structure

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Procedural Abstraction
open

details of enter
algorithm

implemented with a "knowledge" of the

object that is associated with enter

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Architecture
“The overall structure of the software and the
ways in which that structure provides
conceptual integrity for a system.” [SHA95a]
Structural properties. This aspect of the architectural
design representation defines the components of a system
(e.g., modules, objects, filters) and the manner in which those
components are packaged and interact with one another. For
example, objects are packaged to encapsulate both data and
the processing that manipulates the data and interact via the
invocation of methods
Extra-functional properties. The architectural design
description should address how the design architecture
achieves requirements for performance, capacity, reliability,
security, adaptability, and other system characteristics.
Families of related systems. The architectural design
should draw upon repeatable patterns that are commonly
encountered in the design of families of similar systems. In
essence, the design should have the ability to reuse
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architectural building blocks.
Patterns
Design Pattern Template
Pattern name—describes the essence of the pattern in a short
but expressive name
Intent—describes the pattern and what it does
Also-known-as—lists any synonyms for the pattern
Motivation—provides an example of the problem
Applicability—notes specific design situations in which the
pattern is applicable
Structure—describes the classes that are required to
implement the pattern
Participants—describes the responsibilities of the classes that
are required to implement the pattern
Collaborations—describes how the participants collaborate to
carry out their responsibilities
Consequences—describes the “design forces” that affect the
pattern and the potential trade-offs that must be considered
when the pattern is implemented
Related patterns—cross-references related design patterns

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Separation of Concerns
 Any complex problem can be more easily
handled if it is subdivided into pieces that
can each be solved and/or optimized
independently
 A concern is a feature or behavior that is
specified as part of the requirements
model for the software
 By separating concerns into smaller, and
therefore more manageable pieces, a
problem takes less effort and time to
solve.
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Modularity
 "modularity is the single attribute of software
that allows a program to be intellectually
manageable" [Mye78].
 Monolithic software (i.e., a large program
composed of a single module) cannot be easily
grasped by a software engineer.
 The number of control paths, span of reference,
number of variables, and overall complexity would
make understanding close to impossible.
 In almost all instances, you should break the
design into many modules, hoping to make
understanding easier and as a consequence,
reduce the cost required to build the software.

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Modularity: Trade-offs
What is the "right" number of modules
for a specific software design?
module development cost

cost of
software

module
integration
cost

optimal number number of modules

of modules
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Information Hiding
module • algorithm
controlled
interface • data structure

• details of external interface

• resource allocation policy

clients "secret"

a specific design decision

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Why Information Hiding?
 reduces the likelihood of “side effects”
 limits the global impact of local design
decisions
 emphasizes communication through
controlled interfaces
 discourages the use of global data
 leads to encapsulation—an attribute of
high quality design
 results in higher quality software

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Stepwise Refinement
open

walk to door;
reach for knob;

open door; repeat until door opens

turn knob clockwise;
walk through; if knob doesn't turn, then
close door. take key out;
find correct key;
insert in lock;
endif
pull/push door
move out of way;
end repeat

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Sizing Modules: Two Views
What's How big
inside?? is it??

MODULE

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Functional Independence
 Functional independence is achieved by
developing modules with "single-minded" function
and an "aversion" to excessive interaction with
other modules.
 Cohesion is an indication of the relative functional
strength of a module.
 A cohesive module performs a single task, requiring
little interaction with other components in other
parts of a program. Stated simply, a cohesive module
should (ideally) do just one thing.
 Coupling is an indication of the relative
interdependence among modules.
 Coupling depends on the interface complexity
between modules, the point at which entry or
reference is made to a module, and what data pass
across the interface.
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Aspects
 Consider two requirements, A and B.
Requirement A crosscuts requirement B
“if a software decomposition
[refinement] has been chosen in which B
cannot be satisfied without taking A into
account. [Ros04]
 An aspect is a representation of a cross-
cutting concern.

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Aspects—An Example
 Consider two requirements for the SafeHomeAssured.com
WebApp. Requirement A is described via the use-case Access
camera surveillance via the Internet. A design refinement would
focus on those modules that would enable a registered user
to access video from cameras placed throughout a space.
Requirement B is a generic security requirement that states
that a registered user must be validated prior to using
SafeHomeAssured.com. This requirement is applicable for all
functions that are available to registered SafeHome users. As
design refinement occurs, A* is a design representation for
requirement A and B* is a design representation for
requirement B. Therefore, A* and B* are representations of
concerns, and B* cross-cuts A*.
 An aspect is a representation of a cross-cutting concern.
Therefore, the design representation, B*, of the requirement,
a registered user must be validated prior to using
SafeHomeAssured.com, is an aspect of the SafeHome WebApp.

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 Refactoring
 Fowler [FOW99] defines refactoring in the following manner:
 "Refactoring is the process of changing a software system in
such a way that it does not alter the external behavior of the
code [design] yet improves its internal structure.”
 When software is refactored, the existing design is examined
for
 redundancy
 unused design elements
 inefficient or unnecessary algorithms
 poorly constructed or inappropriate data structures
 or any other design failure that can be corrected to yield a better
design.

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OO Design Concepts
 Design classes
 Entity classes
 Boundary classes
 Controller classes
 Inheritance—all responsibilities of a superclass is
immediately inherited by all subclasses
 Messages—stimulate some behavior to occur in the
receiving object
 Polymorphism—a characteristic that greatly reduces the
effort required to extend the design

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 Design Classes
 Analysis classes are refined during design to become entity
classes
 Boundary classes are developed during design to create the
interface (e.g., interactive screen or printed reports) that the user
sees and interacts with as the software is used.
 Boundary classes are designed with the responsibility of managing
the way entity objects are represented to users.
 Controller classes are designed to manage
 the creation or update of entity objects;
 the instantiation of boundary objects as they obtain information from
entity objects;
 complex communication between sets of objects;
 validation of data communicated between objects or between the
user and the application.

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The Design Model
high

analysis model
class diagrams
analysis packages use-cases - text class diagrams Requirements:
CRCmodels use-casediagrams analysis packages constraints
collaborationdiagrams activitydiagrams CRCmodels
dataflowdiagrams interoperability
swimlanediagrams collaborationdiagrams targets and
control-flowdiagrams collaborationdiagrams dataflowdiagrams
processingnarratives statediagrams control-flowdiagrams configuration
sequencediagrams processingnarratives
statediagrams
sequencediagrams

designclass realizations
subsystems
collaborationdiagrams technical interface component diagrams
design designclasses designclass realizations
Navigationdesign activitydiagrams subsystems
GUIdesign sequencediagrams collaborationdiagrams
component diagrams
design model designclasses
refinements to: activitydiagrams
refinements to: component diagrams sequencediagrams
designclass realizations designclasses
subsystems activitydiagrams
low collaborationdiagrams sequencediagrams deployment diagrams

architecture interface component-level deployment-level

elements elements elements elements

process dimension
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Design Model Elements
 Data elements
 Data model --> data structures
 Data model --> database architecture
 Architectural elements
 Application domain
 Analysis classes, their relationships, collaborations and behaviors are
transformed into design realizations
 Patterns and “styles” (Chapters 9 and 12)
 Interface elements
 the user interface (UI)
 external interfaces to other systems, devices, networks or other
producers or consumers of information
 internal interfaces between various design components.
 Component elements
 Deployment elements

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Architectural Elements
 The architectural model [Sha96] is
derived from three sources:
 information about the application domain for
the software to be built;
 specific requirements model elements such as
data flow diagrams or analysis classes, their
relationships and collaborations for the
problem at hand, and
 the availability of architectural patterns
(Chapter 12) and styles (Chapter 9).

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Interface Elements
MobilePhone
WirelessPDA

ControlPanel
LCDdisplay
LEDindicators
keyPadCharacteristics KeyPad
speaker
wirelessInterface
readKeyStroke()
decodeKey()
displayStatus()
lightLEDs()
sendControlMsg()
<<interface>>
KeyPad

readKeystroke()
decodeKey()

Figure 9.6 UMLinterface representationforControlPanel

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Component Elements

SensorManagement
Sensor

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Deployment Elements
Control Panel CPI server
Security homeownerAccess

Personal computer
externalAccess

Security Surveilance

homeManagement communication

Figure 9.8UMLdeployment diagramforSafeHome

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