Ethiopian Institute of Technology- Mekelle

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Electrical Machine
Chapter-2

Lecture -2

Darge Meressa (Electrical Power Eng.)

Electrical Power Engineering Stream

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TRANSFORMER

Inrush currents, parallel operation, special transformers, design

aspect

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 Ideal transformer

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 Real transformer

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 Introduction
• A transformer is a static electromagnetic device that
transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
by electromagnetic induction without changing the
frequency. And,Power transformer is an important
component of power systems.
• The main active materials in transformer construction
are magnetic materials and conductors.
• Magnetic material consists of laminated iron core and
carries flux linked to windings. Energy is transferred
from one electrical circuit to another through the
magnetic field carried by the core.
• The iron core provides a low reluctance path to the
magnetic flux thereby reducing magnetizing current.

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Please read the following materials

- Transformer parameters at no-load,

and at rated load
- Magnetic saturation and its effect on
transformer operating parameters.
- Transformer Excitation current , over
excitation and transformer parameters.

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Magnetizing inrush current in transformers results from
any unexpected changes of the magnetizing voltage. This
current in transformer may be caused by energizing an
unloaded transformer, occurrence of an external fault,
voltage recovery after clearing an external fault and out-
of phase synchronizing of connected generator . Because
the amplitude of inrush current can be as high as a short
circuit current, a detailed analysis of the magnetizing
inrush current under various conditions is necessary for
the concerns of a protective system for the transformers.
To gain an analytical understanding of inrush , we must
first understand the relationship between the voltage
applied to the winding and the flux in the magnetic cores
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the transformer. 7
• Transient transformer inrush currents can exceed the
nominal current and may achieve the rated value of the
short-circuit current of the power transformer.
• In actual practice, a transient phenomenon in the form
of inrush current is unavoidable since the instant of
switching cannot be easily controlled and the instant of
switching favourable to one phase is not favourable to
the other two phases.
• When the transformer is switched off, the excitation
current follows the hysteresis curve to zero, whereas
the flux density value changes to a non-zero value Br as
seen from the fig. below.
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 Fig.1.1

Maximum inrush current

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• Here, a residual flux density +Br, a maximum inrush current is
drawn when a transformer is switched on at the instant when the
applied voltage is zero.

• If the transformer was not switched off, excitation current (i) and
flux density would have followed the doted curves. (fig 1.1).

• As per the constant linkage theorem, magnetic flux in an inductive

circuit can not change suddenly; the flux just after closing the
switch (at t = 0+)must remain equal to the flux just before closing
the switch (at t = 0-).

• Hence, the flux density, instead of starting from the negative

maximum value (-Bmp), starts from +Br and reaches the peak
positive value (Br +2Bmp) driving the core into saturation.
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• A problem related to the voltage level in the transformer is the
problem of current inrush at starting. Suppose that the voltage

is applied at the moment the transformer is first connected to

the power line. The maximum flux height reached on the first
half-cycle of the applied voltage depends on the phase of the
voltage at the time the voltage is applied. If the initial voltage is

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•And if the initial flux in the core is zero, then the
maximum flux during the first half-cycle will just equal the
maximum flux at steady state:

• This flux level is just the steady-state flux, so it causes no

special problems. But if the applied voltage happens to be

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 Types of Transformer Inrush currents
Transformer inrush currents can be divided into three categories:
• energization inrush,
• recovery inrush, and
• sympathetic inrush
• The first, energization inrush, results from the reapplication of system
voltage to a transformer which has been previously de-energized.
• The second, recovery inrush, occurs when transformer voltage is
restored after having been reduced by a nearby short circuit on the
system.
• The third, sympathetic inrush, can occur when two or more transformers
are operated in parallel. Offsets in inrush currents can circulate in
transformers already energized, which in turn causes a mild inrush.

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• Large inrush may cause an excessive momentary dip in the supply
voltage affecting operation of other inter connected electrical
equipment. Switching on of a particular transformer in an
interconnected network can affect already energized transformers.
• As a transient magnetizing inrush current, reaching magnitudes as
high as six to eight times the rated current flows in a transformer
when switched on to an electric power network, the other
transformers, already connected to the network near the
transformer being switched may also have a transient magnetizing
current of appreciable magnitude at the same time.
• When transformer B is switched on to the network already feeding
similar transformers (C) in the neighbourhood, the transient
magnetizing inrush current of the switched on transformer also
flows into the other transformer and produces in them a DC flux.

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• This gives rise to increased flux density and corresponding higher
magnetizing currents in the other transformers.

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 Factors affecting Inrush Phenomena
A. Switching-on angle ()
Inrush current decreases when switching-on angle
on the voltage wave increases. It is maximum for
=0o and minimum for =90o
B. Residual flux density
Inrush current is significantly aggravated by residual
flux density, which depends upon core material
characteristics and the power factor of the load at
interruption when a transformer was switched off.

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C. Serious Resistance
The resistance of line between the source and transformer has
a predominant effect on the inrush phenomenon. Due to the
damping effect, series resistance between the transformer and
source not only reduces the maximum initial inrush current
but also fastens its decay rate.

D. Inrush Under load

If a transformer is switched on with load, the inrush peaks are
affected to some extent by the load power factor. When it is
switched on under heavy load with the power factor close to
unity the peak value of inrush current is smaller , and as the
power factor reduces, the inrush current peak is higher.

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Mitigation of Inrush current
• During the inrush phenomena, inrush current in the saturated
core condition is limited by the air core reactance of the
windings and hence it is usually lower than the peak short
circuit current due to faults.
• Since transformers are designed to withstand mechanical
effects of short circuit forces, inrush current may not be
considered to be dangerous, although they may unnecessarily
cause operation of protective devices like relays and fuses.
• One of the natural ways of reducing inrush current is to switch
on transformers through a closing resistor. The voltage at the
transformer terminals is lower than the rated value (50%)
after reducing the inrush current the resistor is subsequently
by-passed to apply full voltage to the transformer.

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• If possible, a transformer should be switched
from its high voltage winding, which is usually
the outer winding in core type transformers
and therefore has a higher air core reactance
resulting in a lower value of inrush current.

• Since residual flux is one of the main reasons

for high inrush currents, any attempt to reduce
it helps in mitigating the inrush phenomenon.
A capacitor of suitable size is connected across
it.
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Parallel operation of transformers

• The operation of transformers in parallel becomes necessary

owing to the following reasons :

i. with two or more transformers operating in parallel, the

power system becomes more reliable. For instance if one
transformer develops fault, it can be removed and the other
transformers can maintain the flow of power, though at a
reduced level.

ii. Transformers can be switched off or on, depending upon the

power demand. In this manner, the transformer losses
decreases and the system becomes more economical and
efficient in operation.

iii. The cost of standby (spare) set is reduced when two or more
transformers are installed.
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Conditions for satisfactory operation of transformers in parallel :

1. Transformation or turn-ratios and voltage ratings

are same.
2. Polarities of the transformers are same.
3. Percentage impedances of the transformers are
same.
4. Ratios of resistance to reactance are same.
5. Phase displacement between primary and
secondary windings of the transformers
6. Phase sequences of the transformers are same.

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For Single Phase Transformers :
• Only the first four conditions apply as there is no phase sequence and phase
displacement due to voltage transformation.

• If the turn-ratios or voltage ratings are not same a circulating current will flow even at
no-load.

• If the percent impedance or the ratios of resistance to reactance are not same, the
division of load between the transformers when applied will no longer be
proportional to their KVA ratings. Hence the capacities of the transformers can not be
utilized to a full extent.

• The total capacity of two paralleled transformers that have unequal percent
impedances by the relation.
ZB
Total capacity  S A  SB
ZA
Where, SA and ZA are the respective capacity and percent impedance of the transformer
of larger percent impedance and SB and ZB are the respective capacity and percent
impedance of the transformer of smaller percent impedance.
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For Three Phase Transformers :

• The same conditions hold true for three phase transformers

except in this case the questions of phase displacement and
phase sequence must be considered.
• Phase sequence refers to the order in which the terminal
voltages reach their maximum values. In paralleling those
terminals whose voltages reach their maximum simultaneously
are paired.
• Certain transformer connections as the Wye-delta or delta-Wye
produce a phase displacement of 30° between the line voltages
of primary side and those of the secondary side.
• Transformers of such connections can not be run in parallel
with the transformers not having this phase displacement such
as Wye-Wye, or delta-delta.
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 Special Transformers
• Instrument Transformers

Specially constructed accurate ratio instrument transformers are

employed in conjunction with standard low-range a.c. instruments.
These instrument transformers are of two kinds:

i. current transformers for measuring large alternating currents and

ii. potential transformers for measuring high alternating voltages

Current transformers - are used with low-range

ammeters to measure currents in high-voltage
alternating-current circuits where it is not
practicable to connect instruments and meters
directly to the lines.

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• In addition to insulating the instrument from the high voltage line, they step
down the current in a known ratio. The current (or series) transformer has a
primary coil of one or more turns of thick wire connected in series with the line
whose current is to be measured.
• The secondary consists of a large number of turns of fine wire and is connected
across the ammeter terminals. (usually of 5 amps.)
Safety Precautions
• It should be noted that, since the ammeter resistance is very low, the current
transformer normally works short circuited. If for any reason, the ammeter is taken
out of the secondary winding, then this winding must be short-circuited with the
help of short-circulating switch S.

• If this is not done, then due to the absence of counter amp-turns of the
secondary, the unopposed primary m.m.f. will set up an abnormally high flux in the
core which will produce excessive core loss with subsequent heating and a high
voltage across the secondary terminals.
• Hence, the secondary of a current transformer should never be left open under
any circumstances.

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 Current transformers

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Potential Transformers -
• These transformers are extremely accurate-ratio step-down transformers and are used
in conjunction with standard low-range voltmeters (usually 150-V) whose deflection
when divided by voltage transformation ratio, gives the true voltage on the high
voltage side.
• Up to voltages of 5,000, potential transformers are usually of the dry type, between
5,000 and 13,800 volts, they may be either dry type or oil immersed type, and for
voltages above 13,800 they are always oil immersed type.
• Since their secondary windings are required
to operate instruments or relays or pilot lights,
their ratings are usually of 40 to 100 W.

• For safety, the secondary should be

completely insulated from the high-voltage
primary and should be, in addition, grounded
for affording protection to the operator. Fig.3
shows the connections of such a transformer

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 Voltage (Potential) transformers

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Rectifier transformers
• Duties of rectifier transformers serving special industrial
loads are more stringent than conventional transformers.
• With the rapid development in power electronic converters
and switching devices, transformers with modern static
converters (rectifiers) are being widely used for current as
high as hundreds of Kilo-amperes.
• Design and manufacture of transformers with the rectifier
duty poses certain challenges and some of the special
characteristics of rectifier transformers are: -
- complex winding arrangements
- High currents and associated stray field effects due to
harmonics
- necessity of maintaining constant direct current
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Example
• One of the most popular rectifier circuits is three phase six pulse bridge circuit as shown
in the next figure.

Bridge connection

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 It gives a 6-pulse rectifier operation with the r.m.s. value of the secondary current for
ideal communication ( zero overlap angle) as: -

2
3
1 1  2 2 2 2  2
2  
I i 2
d   I  I  I
2  3 
d d d
2 3 3
3

Where, Id is the direct current.

For a transformer with unity turns ratio, the r.m.s. value of the primary current is also given
by the above expression

The average value of direct voltage is: -

1 3 2
 
Vd  2 E cos  d  E

3
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• The ratings of both primary and secondary windings are equal; which can be seen from the
following equation.

P  3EI 1.047Vd I d 1.047 Pd

Features of rectifier transformers
• Rectifier transformers are used in applications where the secondary voltage is required to
be varied over a wide range at a constant current value.
•It is extremely difficult and uneconomical to have taps on the secondary winding because of
its very low number of turns and high current value. The taps are either provided on the
primary winding, or a separate regulating transformer is used which can be accommodated
in the same tank.
•For large rating rectifier transformers, the field due to high current causes excessive stray
losses in structural parts made from magnetic steel. Hence, these parts are usually made of
non- magnetic steel.

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• Rectifier transformers are subjected to harmonics due to non-sinusoidal
current duty. Hence, some times the pulse number gets decided by harmonic
considerations. Thus, more elaborate loss calculations are required for
rectifier transformers as compared to conventional transformers.

• Because of possibility of rectifier faults, special design and manufacturing

precautions are taken for rectifier transformers. It is generally preferred to
design the rectifier transformers with larger core area with the corresponding
smaller number of turns to reduce short circuit forces.
• They are used in
– Variable-speed-drive motor controls
– Mining applications
– Electric furnace applications
– Higher-voltage laboratory-type experiments
– High-voltage direct-current power transmission (HVDC) and others.

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Converter transformers for HVDC
• Because of the many advantages of HVDC transmissions as compared to HVAC,
there is a steady increase.
• The converter transformer is one of the most important and costly component
of HVDC transmission.
• As in the case of rectifier transformers, due to harmonics content in converter
circuits, design and construction of converter transformers needs special
attention to be taken into account. i.e.,
- operating flux density in the core is kept lower
( around 1.6 Tesla)
- conductor dimensions are smaller
- a proper de-rating factor is applied depending
upon the magnitude of various harmonic
components.
- Insulation design is the most challenging and
has to be designed for combined AC_DC
voltage stress
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• Furnace transformers
• These are used to feed the arc or induction furnace. They are characterised
by a low secondary voltage (80 to 1000 V) and high current ( 10 to 60 KA)
depending on the MVA rating.

• It has to be specially designed to withstand frequent short circuits on the

secondary side. Currents drawn in the arc furnace are characterised by wide
fluctuations and unbalance conditions which lead to problems of voltage
drops, harmonics, e.t.c.

• Non-magnetic steel is invariably used for the LV lead terminals and tank in
the vicinity of low voltage leads to eliminate hot spots and minimize stray
losses.

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 Furnace and Rectifier Transformers

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 An active part of the rectifier transformer with the Inter Phase Transformer

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• The leakage reactance of the furnace transformer affects the furnace operation
since it gets added to the reactance of the high current connection between the
transformer secondary and electrodes. The higher the reactance, the lower the
useful service currents are and reduced efficiency.

• The furnace transformers are provided with a separate regulating (tap)

windings. The variable power input requirement is achieved by varying the
supply voltage to electric arc furnace over a wide range continuously by use
of OLTC.

• Since the current carried by the secondary windings is quite high, a

continuously transposed cable (CTC) conductor is used which minimizes the
eddy losses, gets ride of the transposition problems and improve the
winding space factor.

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 I. Autotransformer

 On some occasions it is desirable to change voltage

levels by only a small amount. For example, it may be
necessary to increase a voltage from 110 to 120 V or from
13.2 to 13.8 kV these small rises may be made necessary
by voltage drops that occur in power systems a long way
from the generators. In such circumstances, it is wasteful
and excessively expensive to wind a transformer with two
full windings, each rated at about the same voltage. A
special-purpose transformer, called an autotransformer is
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 Voltage and Current Relationships in an
Autotransformer

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 IV. Design aspects of transformers.
A. The Design Problem Generally
B. Power Handling Ability
C. Relationship, Ap, to Transformer Power Handling Capability
D. Relationship, Kg, to Transformer Regulation and Power Handling
Capability
E. Transformer Area Product, Ap
F. Transformer Volume and the Area Product, Ap
G. Transformer Weight and the Area Product, Ap
H. Transformer Surface Area and the Area Product, Ap
I. Transformer Current Density, J, and the Area Product, Ap
J. 01/05/2025
Transformer Core Geometry, Kg, and the Area Product, Ap 48
 A. The Design Problem Generally

The designer is faced with a set of constraints that must be observed

in the design of any transformer.
 Output power, P0

– the secondary winding must be capable of delivering to the

load within specified regulation limits.
 Relates to minimum efficiency of operation

-which is dependent upon the maximum power loss that can be

allowed in the transformer.
 The maximum permissible temperature rise for the transformer
when it is used in a specified temperature environment.
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 One of the basic steps in transformer design is the
selection of proper core material. Each one of these
materials has its own optimum point in the
- cost, size, frequency and efficiency spectrum.
 Depending upon the application, some of these constraints will
dominate.
 It is not possible to optimize all parameters in a single design
because of their interaction and interdependence.

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 B. Power Handling Ability

• For years, manufacturers have assigned numeric codes to their cores to

indicate their power-handling ability.
• This method assigns to each core a number called the area product, Ap.
• The core suppliers use these numbers to summarize dimensional and
electrical properties in their catalogs.
• They are available for laminations,
 C cores,

 Fertile cores,

 Powder cores, and

 Toroidal tape wound cores.

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 C. Relationship, Ap, to Transformer Power Handling
Capability
• According to the newly developed approach, the power handling
capability of a core is related to its area product, Ap, by an equation,
which may be stated as:

• From the above, it can be seen that factors such as flux density,
frequency of operation, and window utilization factor Ku, define the
maximum space which may be occupied by the copper in the
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window.
 Output Power, P0, Versus Apparent Power, Pt, Capability

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 D. Relationship, Kg, to Transformer Regulation and
Power Handling Capability
• Although most transformers are designed for a given
temperature rise, they can also be designed for a given
regulation. The regulation and power-handling ability of a core
is related to two constants:

• From the above, it can be seen that factors such as flux

density, frequency of operation, and waveform coefficient,
have an influence on the transformer size.

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 E. Transformer Area Product, Ap

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 F. Transformer Volume and the Area Product, Ap

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 G. Transformer Weight and the Area Product, Ap

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 H. Transformer Surface Area and the Area Product, Ap

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 I. Transformer Current Density, J and the Area
Product, Ap

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 J. Transformer Core Geometry, Kg, and the Area
Product, Ap

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 Example 1

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 Calculate
Step No. 1 The transformer apparent power, Pt
Step No. 2 The electrical conditions, Ke
Step No. 3 The core geometry, Kg.
Step No. 4 Select a lamination from Chapter 3, comparable in core geometry, Kg.
Step No. 5 The number of primary turns, Np using Faraday's Law.
Step No. 6 The current density, J.
Step No. 7 The input current,
Step No. 8 The primary bare wire area, Awp(B).
Step No. 9 Select the wire from the Wire Table, in Chapter 4.
Step No. 10 The primary resistance, Rp.
Step No. 1 1 The primary copper loss, Pp.
Step No. 12 The secondary turns, Ns.
Step No. 13 The secondary bare wire area, Aws(B).
Step No. 14 Select the wire from the Wire Table, in Chapter 4.
Step No. 15 The secondary winding resistance, Rs.
Step No. 16 The secondary copper loss, Ps.
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Step No. 17 The total primary and secondary copper loss, Pcu. 64
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 TABLE 4-9 PAGE 164, Awp IS FOR HEAVY SYNTHESIS
AND Awp(B) IS FOR BARE CONDUCTOR

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 Chapter 3 (Page 116)

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 Chapter 3 (Page 116)

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 Chapter 4 (Page 164 )

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