Electrons

Electrons
• Today, our idea of matter revolves around the
presence of atoms.

• Owing to this, we define matter as being

made up of atoms.
 Electrons
• Atoms are tiny particles
that can not be seen with
the naked eye. To see
them an electron
microscope may be used.
They are composed of
electrons, protons and neutrons.

• Our referral to the atom, its parts and its

involvement in science may be credited to scientists
such as Democritus, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr
and Chadwick.
 The Greeks
• In about 400 BC the Greek philosopher,
Democritus, suggested that matter
consisted of small indivisible particles.

He called these particles

‘atomos’, from the Greek
word for indivisible.
 J. J. Thomson
Plum Pudding Model
• In 1897 Thomson discovered that
heating metal could release small
particles (electrons).

• He proposed that the electrons were released

from inside the atoms and therefore the atom
was not the smallest possible particle.
 J. J. Thomson
Plum Pudding Model
• Thomson also realised that electrons
were charged particles since they
could be deflected by magnetic and
electric fields. He then proposed a
model where electrons in an atom
were trapped inside a positively
charged ‘sponge’.

This was known as the

…………………….. model of the atom.

 Rutherford
Nucleus
• In 1911 Ernest Rutherford proposed that most
of the atom is empty space and that it
contains a nucleus of very concentrated
positive charge.

• He suggested that small negatively

charged particles exist in a
surrounding ‘electron cloud’,
making the net charge zero.
 Rutherford
Nucleus
• A few years later Ernest Rutherford asked two of his
research students, Hans Geiger and Ernest
Marsden, to investigate the structure of an atom,
using a beam of alpha particles.
 Rutherford
Nucleus
• When the alpha particles were fired at a thin gold foil they found
that:

a. Most of the alpha particles passed

straight through the foil with a very
small deflection

b. Some of the alpha particles were

deflected through large angles

c. And some of the alpha particles

bounced straight back.
 Rutherford
Nucleus
• Since his findings could not be explained by J. J. Thomson’s plum
pudding theory Rutherford’s team determined that:

a. since most of the alpha particles pass straight through the gold
foil, most of the atom must be composed of empty space.

b. As some alpha particles are deflected they must be repelled by a

dense positively charged part of the atom later named the
______________ which contained ________________________ and
most of the mass of the atom.

c. The apparent radius of atoms was much greater than the

measured size of the nucleus. As the electrons were known to be
very small, it was suggested that they occupied the space around the
nucleus in a way similar to the planets orbiting the Sun.
 Bohr
Energy Levels & Electrons
• In 1913 Niels Bohr suggested
that the negatively charged
electrons orbit the nucleus
in particular shells.

He further suggested that

a unique energy value is
required by an electron to
exist within any shell.

• All previous models of the atom could not explain the

behaviour of the electrons and why they did not fall into the
 Chadwick
Neutrons
• In 1932 James Chadwick discovered
neutrons, uncharged particles that
exist together with protons within
the nucleus of an atom.

• Neutrons were difficult to detect

because, unlike protons and electrons, they have no
charge and therefore can not be affected by electric
and magnetic fields.
 Recap
• 1. Matter is made up of atoms.

• 2. Everything is made up of matter.

• 3. Atoms can NOT be seen with the naked eye

however, can be viewed using an electron
microscope.
 Recap
• 4. Democritus suggested that matter is made up of
atoms and that atoms were the smallest particles
known to man.

• 5. Thomson suggested that the atoms were not

the smallest particles known to man since
electrons could be emitted from them.

• 6. Rutherford suggested the presence of a

nucleus.
 Recap
• 7. Bohr suggested that electrons orbited the
nucleus in energy shells.

• 8. Chadwick suggested the presence of

neutrons.
 COMPREHENSION
• 1. In the ‘plum pudding’ model: • 2. During the Geiger-Marsden
experiment:
a. What charge do electrons
have? a. Why did most of the alpha
particles pass through the gold
b. What is the remainder of an foil without deflection?
atom composed of?
b. Why were some of the alpha
c. What force holds the particles directed straight back?
electrons in place?
Electrons, the nucleus and the
periodic table
• Experiments have now shown that there are three types of different particles
which makes up the atom. They are:
1. ________________________________

2. ________________________________

3. ________________________________

Neutral atoms have the same number of electrons and protons.

Protons and neutrons together in the nucleus are referred to as nucleons.

Particle Location in the Mass Electric charge

atom
Proton 1.67 × 10-27 kg

Neutron 1.67 × 10-27 kg 0

electron 9.11 × 10-31 kg

 The Atom
• An atom is composed of protons, neutrons and
electrons.

• Protons and neutrons can be located within the

nucleus of an atom while the electrons can be
found in energy shells or energy levels.

• The mass of an atom is based on the mass of both

protons and neutrons. The mass of an electron is
so small that it is considered negligible.
 The Atom
• If you know of how the the Solar System is
arranged then you can think of the Sun as
being the nucleus and the planets orbiting it
as the electrons.
 The Atom
• Electrons can be located in the energy levels. The first energy level
holds a maximum of 2 electrons, the second holds 8 and the third
holds 18. This is as far as we will go at this level.

Energy Level/Shells Maximum amount

of electrons energy
level holds
1 2
2 8
3 18
 The Atom
• For example carbon has 6 electrons therefore its electronic
configuration would be: 2.4 such a configuration says that carbon is
in Period two because it only has two numbers and is in Group four
because the last number is a 4.
 The Atom
• Magnesium has an electron count of 12 and therefore has an
electronic configuration of 2.8.2. Its configuration says that
magnesium is in Period three and Group two.

• Each atom is different. They are depicted in the Periodic Table.

Periodic Table
 Periodic Table
• All elements in their neutral state are
represented within a Periodic Table.

• They are categorized based on their Groups

and Periods.

• Groups run vertically while Periods run

horizontally within the Periodic Table.
 Periodic Table
• Groups indicate the number of valence
electrons an atom has while Periods indicate
how many energy levels an atom has.

For example the sodium atom, Na, is in group

1 and period 3 therefore Na has 1 valence
electron and 3 energy levels.

• Valence electrons are those electrons

available for bonding. In other words they
make bonding between atoms possible.
 NUCLEAR NOTATION
• The proton number may be referred to as the
atomic number and is represented by the
capital letter Z.

The total number of protons and neutrons

(referred to as nucleons) is equal to a neutral
atom’s mass number and is often represented
by the capital letter A.
 NUCLEAR NOTATION
• The number of neutrons, the neutron
number, is represented by the capital letter, N.

Given above the atomic notation for any given

symbol represented here as X may be
represented as: AZX.

The neutron may be determined by:

# of neutrons = mass number – atomic number where (N = A – Z)
 Periodic Table
Comprehension

• Write out the atomic notation for the

following:
a. Magnesium which has an atomic number of 12 and a mass number of
24.

b. Boron which has an atomic number of 5 and a mass number of 10.

c. Iron which has an atomic number of 26 and a mass number of 56.

For the above, determine how many protons

are present in each of the elements stated.
 Periodic Table
Isotopes
• Nuclei of a neutral element always have the same number of protons
and so have the same atomic/proton number.

• Sometimes the nuclei may contain a different number of neutrons. In

this case atoms with the same proton number but different nucleon
numbers are referred to as isotopes.

• An example of isotopes of carbon are: 126C; 136C; 146C; here the

atomic/protonic numbers are the same however the neutron count is
different. Compute the amount of neutrons present in each isotope
of carbon above.
 Periodic Table
Isotopes
• As proton number identifies the name of the
element it is often more convenient to write
isotopes in a simpler format: carbon-12, carbon-13
or carbon-14.

• Nuclei that share the same number of protons and

neutrons are referred to as nuclides. So carbon-12,
13 and 14 are nuclides of each other.
 Comprehension
• Questions:
1. Fluorine has a proton number of 9
a. How many electrons does a neutral fluorine atom have?

b. Sketch the arrangement of these electrons.

c. In what Group of the Periodic Table is fluorine placed?

2. Copy the following table then calculate and fill in the missing values.
Atom # of protons, Z Nucleon number, A Number of Number of electrons
neutrons, N
A Carbon 6 12

B Sodium 11 12

C Gold 197 79

D Osmium 76 114
Radioactive emissions

Radioactivity in an
electric field
 Radioactive Elements
• Some elements emit ionisation energy all the
time and are referred to as radioactive elements.

• Ionisation energy is the quantity of energy that

an isolated, gaseous atom in the ground
electronic state must absorb to discharge an
electron, resulting in a cation (positive particle).

This energy is usually expressed in units of

kJ/mol, or the amount of energy it takes for all
the atoms in a mole to lose one electron each.
 Radioactive Elements
• Radioactive elements are naturally found in
the environment. They emit background
radiation.

• Examples of radioactive elements are shown

below:

Uranium Thorium Iridium

 The Pioneers of Radioactive Elements
• In 1896 Henri Becquerel noticed that, after leaving
a sample containing uranium in a drawer near
some photographic film, the film became
exposed. He theorised that the uranium was
producing ‘invisible rays’ which caused a
chemical reaction in the film.

Over the next few years Marie and Pierre

Curie investigated other minerals and
isolated radium in sufficient amounts
to allow the study of its properties.
 The Pioneers of Radioactive Elements
• Background radiation
There is always small amounts of background radiation around us.

From where do you think?

 Investigating Nuclear Radiation
• Investigating nuclear radiation
Three different types of nuclear radiation have been discovered:
a. Alpha (α) b. Beta (β) and c. Gamma (γ)

Alpha particles are strongly positively charged. They penetrate

materials and are easily absorbed.

Beta particles are negatively charged and penetrate material more

than alpha particles but are absorbed less.

Gamma rays have NO charge, penetrate materials the best and are
the least absorbed of the three types of particles mentioned.
 Investigating Nuclear Radiation
Geiger-Muller Tube
• A Geiger counter can be used to detect ionising radiation.

A radioactive particle passing through a Geiger-Muller tube

produces an electrical pulse which is logged by a counter
attached to the tube. By placing different materials
between the source and the Geiger counter, the
penetrating power can be investigated.
 Behaviour of Alpha, Beta and Gamma
Particles
• If a beam of radiation enters a magnetic
field the alpha particles will be deflected
and so will the beta particles but in
opposite directions of each other gamma
radiation is un-deflected by magnetic
radiation.

• If a beam of radiation enters an electric

field the alpha particles will deflect
to the negative metal plate beta particles
will deflect to the positive metal plate
however, gamma radiation is
unaffected they just pass straight through.

• The cloud chamber

Even though we are unable to see alpha particles, beta particles or gamma rays, we can see the tracks they make when water droplets
condense on ions formed in a cloud chamber.
 Properties of Alpha, Beta and
Gamma Radiation
Alpha particles Beta particles Gamma rays

Symbol α β γ

Nature A particle consisting of A fast moving electron Electromagnetic

2 protons and 2 ejected from the radiation emitted by the
neutrons ejected from nucleus nucleus. A high energy
the nucleus photon

Electric charge +2 e (charge of 2 - 1e (charge of one None

electrons) electron)

Penetrating power Can travel only a few Can travel a few metres Can travel long distance
centimetres in air. in air. Blocked by metal in air. Intensity reduced
Blocked by paper or foil. by thick metal plating
skin. such as lead.

Ionising power Strongly ionising as it is Ionising Some ionisation

massive and highly
charged
Effect of magnetic and Deflects the alpha Deflects the beta No effect
electric fields particle particle in the opposite
direction to an alpha
particle
 Comprehension
• Questions:
1. Why would these careers possibly lead to you having a higher than
average annual dose of radiation?
a. Radiographer in a hospital
b. Airline pilot
c. Miner

2. What type(s) of nuclear radiation:

a. Can penetrate your skin?
b. Causes the most ionisation?
c. Are deflected by a magnetic field?
d. Can travel the farthest in air?
Nuclear decays and reactions
 Nuclides
• Many nuclides are stable.

This simply means that the nucleus has the correct balance of protons and
neutrons and does not break apart.

However, some nuclides have too many neutrons or too many protons and this
makes them unstable causing the nucleus to decay (break apart) over time. For
example, carbon – 12 is a stable nuclide but carbon – 14 is NOT. Carbon – 14 nuclei
will decay over time changing into nitrogen – 14 nuclei.

When a decay occurs it can be described in these simple terms:

parent nucleus  daughter nucleus + alpha, beta OR gamma radiation

 Alpha Decay
• The general form of an alpha decay equation is:

ZX  α + Y
A 4 A-4
2 Z-2

where X and Y are any particular atom at the time.

• During alpha decay an unstable parent nucleus releases 2 protons

and 2 neutrons bound together forming an alpha particle.

The alpha particle is ejected from the parent nucleus leaving a

daughter nucleus with less mass. As two protons have left the
nucleus the resulting daughter is a different element than the
parent.
 Beta Decay
• The general form of a beta decay equation is:

A
X 
Z
0
-1 β + A
Y
Z+1

• A beta particle is a fast moving electron produced when a

neutron converts to a proton inside the nucleus.

The electron was not originally present.

After decay there is an additional proton in the nucleus

and so the daughter nuclide is a different element from
 Gamma Decay
• The general form of a gamma decay equation is:

A
Z X  0
0 γ + A
Z X

An alpha or beta decay may leave the daughter nucleus with

some excess energy.

The nucleus is said to be in an excited state. This energy may

be released by a gamma decay.

Gamma decay does not cause any change in the number of

protons or neutrons in the nucleus and so the product of the
 Nuclear Fission
• Large nuclei can split into two smaller nuclei, releasing energy.

This process is usually caused by hitting the nucleus with a neutron in

induced fission.

The neutron is absorbed and then the nucleus becomes so unstable

that it splits up.

During fission several neutrons are released alongside the two new
nuclei.

In nuclear reactors these neutrons are used to cause further fissions

and form a chain reaction.

235 1 141 92 1
 Nuclear Fusion
• Stars produce their energy using the process of nuclear fusion.

In this process small nuclei are merged together to form larger ones.

The Sun produces all of its energy by nuclear fusion processes, mostly
fusing isotopes of hydrogen to form helium isotopes.

An example of a fusion reaction is shown below.

1H + 1H  He + γ
2 1 3
2
 Comprehension
• 1. Write complete decay equations for the following.

a. The alpha decay of americium-241 (24195Am) into an

isotope of neptunium (Np).

b. The beta decay of caesium-137 (13755Cs) into an isotope

of barium.

c. What is the decay equation for alpha decay of polonium-

210 into an isotope of lead, 20682Pb?
Applications of radioisotopes
 Radioactive Decay
• Radioactive decay is a random process because a very large
number of identical nuclei are involved.

• For an effective model of the decay process all of the

particles involved need to be identical so that they each
have exactly the same chance of decaying.

• Although radioactive materials are potentially very

dangerous they are also very useful in fields from medicine
to archaeology.
 Medical Uses of Radioisotopes
Medical Tracers
• Compounds containing radioisotopes can be used as tracers inside of patients.

They are injected into the body and move through the blood stream, gathering in target
organs.

The tracers emit gamma radiation which are detected outside of the body with a gamma
camera.

A computer produces images from the information and problems such as blockages in blood
vessels can be identified.

Techecium-99m (Tc-99m) is the most common tracer used in diagnostic medicine.

This isotope decays by releasing gamma radiation which is easily detectable by gamma
cameras.

Tc-99m also has a short half-life and therefore does not stay in the patient for a long time.
 Medical Uses of Radioisotopes
Radiotherapy
• Radioactive emission can be highly ionising and can cause cancers.

However, cancer cells are more susceptible to damage from gamma

rays than normal cells and so can be destroyed by the gamma
radiation.

During radiotherapy a high intensity beam of gamma radiation is

directed at a tumour.

The cancer cells receive a high dose of the radiation and, hopefully,
die off.

The gamma ray may be produced by cobalt-60.

 Industrial and Civilian Applications
Radio carbon dating
• All organisms contain carbon atoms absorbed from the
atmosphere during its lifetime.

Most of the carbon absorbed is carbon-12 which is a

stable isotope but a small proportion is carbon-14 which
is a beta emitter.

When carbon-14 decays it forms a stable isotope known

as nitrogen-14.

14
C 
6
14
N +
7
0
β
-1
 Industrial and Civilian Applications
Radio carbon dating
• The proportions of carbon-12 and carbon-14 in the atmosphere are constant, as new
carbon-14 is produced by interaction with cosmic rays, at the same rate, carbon-14 decays.

This means that all living organisms maintain a constant ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12.

Once the organism dies it no longer takes in new carbon. The carbon-12 nuclei are stable
but the carbon-14 nuclei continue to decay and so the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon -12
decreases over time.

Scientists can measure the ratio of the two isotopes by measuring the activity of a sample of
carbon taken from biological remains.

This ratio can then be used to find out how long ago the organism died.

Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years and so the remains of an organism which died 5700
years ago would have half as much carbon-14 as an organism that died today.
 Half-Life
• The half –life of a radioisotope is the time taken for the mass (or
activity) of a given sample of it to decay to half of its value.

• The half-life of a radioactive material is NOT affected by conditions

external to the nucleus this includes:

1. Physical conditions such as temperature and pressure

2. Chemical conditions such as whether or not the isotope is in its

pure state or chemically combined with some other element in the
compound.

• Radioactive decay is exponential with time.

 Half-Life
Decay Curve
 Half-Life
Decay Curve
 Comprehension
• 1. Why would an alpha particle emitter not be suitable for
use as a medical tracer?
 Comprehension
• 2. A sample of wood taken from an arrow is found by
radiocarbon dating to have an activity 1/8 of that for a
modern piece of the same type of wood. Estimate the age
of the arrow.
 Comprehension
• 3. An ancient piece of cotton cloth is found to have an
activity, due to carbon-14 decay, ¼ of that of a modern
cotton sample. Estimate the age of the ancient piece of
cloth.
The release of nuclear energy
 Conservation of Energy
• What is the law of conservation of energy?

• Albert Einstein realised that mass was equivalent to

energy and this relationship was given by his famous
equation:

_______________________________
(N.B. Mass must be in kg and c in m/s)
 Converting Mass to Energy
• Whenever there is a change in energy there is an
associated change in mass.

• This also means that mass can be transformed into

energy.
 Converting Mass to Energy
• In nuclear fission (splitting) a large nucleus is split
into two small nuclei.

The mass of these smaller nuclei is less than the

original nucleus and this mass change leads to a
large release of energy.
 Converting Mass to Energy
• How much energy is released during the nuclear fission shown in this equation?

235
92 U + 1 0n  144
56 Ba + 90
36 Kr + 210n

mass of uranium-235 = 3.902996 × 10-25kg mass of barium-144 = 2.389897 × 10-25kg

mass of kryton-90 = 1.493157 × 10-25kg mass of a neutron = 1.674927 × 10-27kg

use ΔE = Δmc2
 Nuclear Fission
• Nuclear fission power stations use the thermal energy
released to heat water into steam which drives turbines.
These are then used to drive generators which produce
electricity.
 Nuclear Fission
• Induced fission is caused by a neutron colliding with a large
nucleus. During this process several other neutrons are
released and these can be used to split other nuclei,
releasing more energy and yet more neutrons. This process
is called a chain reaction.

235
92 U + 1 0n  144
56 Ba + 90
36 Kr + 210n
• How much energy would be released if 1 gram of matter
were completely converted into energy?
• Arguments for and against the use of
nuclear power
For Against
Running costs are low Commissioning (building) and
decommission (dismantling)
costs are high
Only a small amount of waste Nuclear waste contains
produced radioactive isotopes
Large supplies of nuclear fuel Waste products can be used in
available nuclear weapons
No carbon dioxide is produced Accidents such as occurred in
so no contribution to global Chernobyl and Fukushima can
warming contaminate large areas
• Nuclear fusion in stars
Nuclear energy is also released when very small
nuclei combine to form larger ones. This process
occurs in the cores of stars and is only possible at
very high temperatures and pressures, which have
not yet been reproduced sustainably.
• Questions:
1. What is a nuclear chain reaction?

2. A sugar cube has a mass of 12g. How much

energy is equivalent of this mass?

3. Research the advantages and disadvantages of

nuclear energy. Write a report arguing for or
against construction of a power station on your
island.

4. Find out what went wrong in Chernobyl and

Fukushima and how long it will take to clear up the
contaminated land.