Neurotransmitter

s Chemical Messengers
Signaling molecule secreted by a
neuron
Introduction to Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit
signals across a synapse from one neuron to
another neuron, muscle cell, or gland. They
are released in response to an action potential
and act quickly on a specific target.

● Function: Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on

the post-synaptic cell and can either excite or
inhibit the neuron, causing it to fire or suppress
action potentials.

● Action Range: Localized (acts in the synaptic

cleft).

● Effect Duration: Short-lasting and rapid action.

Three main Categories

Inhibitory Excitatory
neurotransmitters neurotransmitters

Modulatory
neurotransmitters
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

 Play a role in relaxation, mood stabilization, and reducing stress

and anxiety.
 Switch-off firing of neurons.
 Found in neurons of cerebellum, basal ganglia, and spinal cord.

• GABA
• Serotonin
• Endorphins
GABA - The Brain’s Chill Pill
GABA: Your Brain’s Brake Pedal
Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Slows down neural activity and prevents overstimulation.
• Reduces Anxiety and Stress:
Low levels = panic attacks.
• Enhances Focus and Relaxation:
Boosted by meditation and yoga.
• Improves Sleep:
Calms the nervous system.
Alcohol binds to GABA receptors, producing a sedative effect.
Serotonin - More than a Happiness
Hormone
The Mood Stabilizer
Regulates mood, sleep, digestion, and social behavior.
90% of serotonin is produced in your gut!
• Mood Stabilization:
Low serotonin = depression & anxiety.
• Social Confidence:
Higher serotonin boosts assertiveness.
• Impulse Control:
Low levels can lead to poor decisions (e.g., hunger).
Exposure to sunlight can increase serotonin, explaining Seasonal Affective
Disorder in winter.
Endorphins - Nature’s Painkillers
Endorphins: Your Natural High
Body’s natural pain relievers.
Released during exercise, laughter, and stress relief.
• Pain Relief & Euphoria: The famous “runner’s high”.
• Boosts Pleasure: Triggered by laughter, sex, and spicy food.
• Reduces Stress: Lowers cortisol levels.

Chocolate triggers endorphin release, giving you a

burst of joy!
GABA, Serotonin & Endorphins: The
Dream Team
How They Work Together??
GABA & Serotonin:
Both reduce anxiety, but work in different ways.
Endorphins & Serotonin:
Endorphins provide temporary euphoria; serotonin maintains
long-term happiness.
GABA & Endorphins:
Create a sense of calm pleasure after stress.
 Introduction to
Neural Hormone
 What are Neural Hormones ?

Neural hormones, or neurohormones, are chemical

messengers synthesized and released by specialized
nerve cells called neurosecretory cells.

These hormones are released into the circulatory

system and regulate functions in distant tissues and
organs, similar to traditional hormones produced by
endocrine glands.

Example Oxytocin,Vasopression.
 Neural hormones Role in Endocrine
system
Regulating the Maintaining Homeostasis: Mediating Stress Responses:
Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis: Example: Antidiuretic Example: Epinephrine
hormone (ADH), produced (adrenaline) is released from the
Example: Corticotropin- by the hypothalamus, helps adrenal medulla during stressful
releasing hormone (CRH) control water situations, increasing heart rate
stimulates the pituitary gland to balance in the body and blood pressure.
release
adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH), Facilitating Brain-Body
Communication:
Example: Oxytocin, released
by the hypothalamus, is
involved in childbirth by
promoting uterine contractions .
 Neural Hormone vs Traditional Hormone
SR Neural Hormone Traditional Hormone
NO.

1 Secreted by neuroendocrine cells in the Produced by endocrine glands (e.g., thyroid,

brain (e.g., hypothalamus) adrenal glands).

2 Stimulated by nerve signals Stimulated by feedback mechanisms (e.g., blood levels).

3 Released directly into the bloodstream from Secreted by glands and enter the bloodstream
nerve cells.

4 Generally fast-acting, affecting nearby or Slower onset, but effects are sustained over time..
distant targets

5 Examples Oxytocin, vasopressin Example, Insulin, cortisol, estrogen

6 Dopamine,CRH TSH,ACTH.
 Mechanism of Action of neural Hormone
Synthesis and Release
Produced in: Neurons (e.g., hypothalamus).
Released via: Exocytosis into the
bloodstream.
Signaling Pathways
Neurons release hormones into circulation
(e.g., GnRH stimulates gonadotropins).
Target Cell Interaction
Receptors: to specific receptors (e.g., G-
protein coupled.
Response: Triggers cellular effects (e.g.,
hormone secretion)
.Examples Dopamine: Modulates mood; inhibits
prolactin.Serotonin: Regulates mood and sleep.Corticotropin-
Releasing Hormone (CRH): Stimulates cortisol
 Key Neural Hormones

Oxytocin: The Love Hormone

• Function: Enhances social bonding and maternal
behaviors.
• Example: Facilitates the bond during breastfeeding
and promotes trust in relationships.
Vasopressin: The Water Regulator
• Function: Regulates water retention in kidneys.
• Example: Low levels can lead to diabetes insipidus,
causing excessive thirst and urination
Neural hormones and Nevrous System

Stress responses Mood and Cognition

Fight or Flight The Chemical Messengers
• Serotonin: Essential for mood
• Hormones: Cortisol and regulation; low levels linked to
adrenaline surge during depression.
stress. • Example: Antidepressants often
increase serotonin to elevate mood.
• Example: Adrenaline • Dopamine: Central to the reward
increases heart rate, system; dysfunction linked to
preparing for quick Parkinson's and addiction.

action.
Clinical Relevance

Disorders Related to Neural

Hormone Imbalances

Diabetes Insipidus:
• Cause: Insufficient vasopressin.
• Symptoms: Excessive thirst and frequent urination.

Autism Spectrum Disorders:

• Connection: Oxytocin dysregulation affects social interactions .
Symptoms of Diabetes
Neuromodulators
Chemical Regulators
 What are Neuromodulators?

Neuromodulators are chemicals that influence neuron

activity by modulating or regulating synaptic transmission,
affecting large areas and multiple neurons over time .

The process by which neuromodulators, regulate and

modify the activity of neurons, affecting brain functions
like mood, attention, and behavior over a prolonged period
is called Neuromodulation.
Functions of Neuromodulators
Regulation of Excitation or Facilitate long-term
synthesis, breakdown inhibition of synaptic plasticity,
or reuptake of membrane receptors key to learning and
neurotransmitter by acting memory.
independently or
together with
neurotransmitter
Control behavioral
and physiological Neuromodulators
states like sleep, Control of glial cells help maintain
appetite, pain, and morphology. homeostasis.
stress.
 Neurotransmitters vs Neuromodulators
SR Neurotransmitters Neuromodulators
NO.
1 Propagate nerve impulse through synapse. Modify and regulate synaptic transmission.

2 Packed in small synaptic vessels. Packed in large synaptic vessels.

3 Found only in axon terminals. Found in all parts of body.

4 Generally, neuron has only one Neuron may have one or more neuromodulators.
neurotransmitter.
5 Act by changing the electric potential- Has diverse actions
depolarization or repolarization.
6 Chemically, amino acids, amines or Chemically, neuromodulators are only peptides.
others.
 Mechanism of Action

Volume Transmission: Neuromodulators

diffuse over large areas, affecting
multiple neurons.

Metabotropic Receptors: Activate slower

but longer-lasting secondary messenger
pathways inside cells.
 Types of Neuromodulators

Dopamine Acetylcholine Serotonin

Function: Reward, motivation, Function: Learning, Function: Mood regulation,

pleasure, motor control. memory, muscle control. sleep, appetite, digestion.
Associated Disorders: Associated Disorders: Associated Disorders :
Parkinson’s disease, addiction, Alzheimer's, myasthenia Depression, anxiety, OCD.
schizophrenia gravis.
Types of Neuromodulators

Glutamate GABA Endorphins

Function: Excitatory Function: Pain relief,

Function: Inhibitory control,
signaling, learning, euphoria.
reduces neural activity.
memory. Disorders: Chronic pain,
Associated Disorders:
Disorders: Stroke, mood disorders
Anxiety, epilepsy.
Alzheimer's
Neuromodulator Systems
Neuromodulatory systems influence brain function by releasing neurotransmitters that
modulate, rather than transmit, signals.
Key Systems

Dopaminergic Involved in reward, motivation, movement

Serotonergic Regulates mood, sleep, appetite, linked to depression

Noradrenergic Controls attention, arousal, stress response

Essential for learning, memory; related to Alzheimer's

Cholinergic disease

:Involved in arousal, cognition, immune responses

Histaminergic
 Functions
These systems modulate behavior, mood, attention, and learning by
affecting large areas of the brain

 Regulation of Brain States: Controls sleep-wake cycles, alertness

 Behavioral Adaptation: Modulates emotional responses and

attention

 Synaptic Plasticity: Supports learning and memory formation

Neuromodulation
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