DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

REAL-TIME SYSTEM DESIGN
MODULE CODE CSEU 08104
ASSIGNMENT 1
GROUP 2
BENG21-EE1
MEMBERS
NAME REGISTRATION SIGNATURE

OSCAR ERASMUS

IBRAHIMU MBEGA MFUKO 2103303217053

MOHAMED A KAIMU 2103303217293

SOPHIA KOMBO 220343412286

ISAKA KONDO

EMMANUEL JUMANNE 2103303217244

ALLY MSIMBE 22034348733

 REAL TIME SYSTEM
Refers to a computing environment where specific tasks must be completed within
defined time constraints or deadlines.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF REAL TIME SYSTEM
 Deterministic response
They are designed to respond in predictable and repeatable ways
 Low latency
They minimize the delay between input and response
 Prioritization
They often prioritize certain tasks to ensure that high priority tasks meet their
deadlines
 Reliability
High reliability and fault tolerance are crucial
EXAMPLES OF REAL TIME SYSTEMS
 Aerospace
 Automotive
 Telecommunications
 Health care
1: ANALYZE HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS FOR REAL-TIME SYSTEMS

The most common set of requirements defined by any operating system or software application is the
physical computer resources, also known as hardware, A hardware requirements list is often
accompanied by a hardware compatibility list (HCL), especially in case of operating systems. An
HCL lists tested, compatible, and sometimes incompatible hardware devices for a particular
operating system or application. The following sub-sections discuss the various aspects of hardware
requirements.

 Architecture

All computer operating systems are designed for a particular computer architecture. Most software
applications are limited to particular operating systems running on particular architectures. Although
architecture-independent operating systems and applications exist, most need to be recompiled to run
on a new architecture.
 Processing power

The power of the central processing unit (CPU) is a fundamental system requirement
for any software. Most software running on x86 architecture define processing power
as the model and the clock speed of the CPU. Many other features of a CPU that
influence its speed and power, like bus speed, cache, and MIPS are often ignored. This
definition of power is often erroneous, as different makes and models of CPUs at
similar clock speed often have different throughput speeds.

 Memory

All software, when run, resides in the random-access memory (RAM) of a computer.
Memory requirements are defined after considering demands of the application,
operating system, supporting software and files, and other running processes. Optimal
performance of other unrelated software running on a multi-tasking computer system is
also considered when defining this requirement.
 Secondary storage

Data storage device requirements vary, depending on the size of software installation,
temporary files created and maintained while installing or running the software, and
possible use of swap space (if RAM is insufficient).

 Display adapter

Software requiring a better than average computer graphics display, like graphics
editors and high-end games, often define high-end display adapters in the system
requirements.

 Peripherals

Some software applications need to make extensive and/or special use of some
peripherals, demanding the higher performance or functionality of such peripherals.
Such peripherals include CD-ROM drives, keyboards, pointing devices, network
devices, etc.
2: ANALOG I/O INTERFACING IN REAL TIME SYSTEMS

Analog I/O interfacing in real-time systems involves the

connection and communication between analog devices (such as
sensors and actuators) and a digital system, allowing it to process
real-world, continuous signals.
Key Components of Analog I/O Interfacing

1. Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC): Converts an analog signal

(continuous voltage or current) into a digital signal that the real-time system can
interpret. For example, an ADC could convert a temperature sensor’s output
into a digital value representing temperature.
2. Digital-to-Analog Converters (DAC): Converts a digital signal from
the system back into an analog signal. This is used to control actuators like
motors, heaters, or valves, enabling the system to interact with the physical
world.
3. Signal Conditioning: Prepares the analog signals for accurate
conversion. This may involve amplifying, filtering, or isolating the signal to
ensure it is in the correct range and form for the ADC.
4. Timing and Synchronization: In real-time systems, data sampling
and signal processing must happen within specific time constraints. Analog I/O
interfaces must be synchronized with the system’s clock to ensure timely data
processing and responses.
How Analog I/O Interfacing Works in Real-Time Systems

When a real-time system needs to monitor or control a physical process:

• Input Stage: Sensors measure physical quantities (like pressure, light,

or sound) and produce continuous analog signals.
• Conversion to Digital: These analog signals are sent to an ADC,
which samples the signal at a fixed rate and converts it into a digital
representation.
• Processing: The system processes this digital data to make real-time
decisions, such as adjusting a parameter or issuing alerts.
• Output Stage: If needed, the system sends commands back to the
physical process through a DAC, converting digital data to an analog signal to
control actuators (like adjusting the speed of a motor).
Importance of Analog I/O in Real-Time Systems

• Real-World Interaction: Many real-time applications rely

on precise and immediate interaction with physical processes.
Analog I/O interfacing allows the system to read and manipulate
real-world signals in real time.
• Precision and Timing: Proper interfacing ensures accurate
data capture and timely response, critical in applications like
medical monitoring, automotive controls, and industrial
automation.
• Safety and Reliability: For systems where timing is crucial
(like flight control or medical devices), reliable analog interfacing
helps ensure that the system operates safely and predictably.
Examples of Analog I/O Interfacing in Real-Time Applications

• Automotive Systems: In anti-lock braking systems (ABS),

sensors provide continuous analog data about wheel speed, which
the real-time system uses to modulate brake pressure dynamically.
• Industrial Automation: Sensors detect parameters like
temperature, flow rate, or vibration, allowing real-time control of
machinery.
• Medical Devices: Heart rate monitors and other medical
sensors send analog signals to real-time systems, enabling
immediate response to patient conditions.
3: DIGITAL I/O INTERFACING IN REAL TIME SYSTEMS

Digital I/O interfacing in real-time systems involves managing

the exchange of digital signals between a real-time processor and
external digital devices (such as switches, LEDs, relays, or other
digital sensors and actuators). Digital signals have discrete states,
typically represented as binary values (0 and 1, or “off” and
“on”).
Key Components of Digital I/O Interfacing

1. Digital Input Lines: These receive digital signals from external devices, like
switches, buttons, or digital sensors. The system reads these signals to monitor the status of
external processes (e.g., whether a switch is pressed or a limit has been reached).
2. Digital Output Lines: These send digital signals from the real-time system to
control external devices, such as LEDs, buzzers, relays, or other actuators. The system can
set these lines high or low to control actions in the external environment.
3. Logic Levels: Digital I/O lines operate within specific voltage ranges, commonly
0V for a low state (0) and 3.3V or 5V for a high state (1), though this can vary based on the
system.
4. Isolation and Protection: Real-time systems often include isolation (e.g.,
optocouplers) and protection (e.g., resistors, diodes) in digital I/O interfacing to prevent
voltage spikes or noise from affecting the processor.
5. Timing and Synchronization: In real-time systems, digital I/O operations must be
precisely timed and synchronized with the system’s clock to ensure that inputs are read and
outputs are set exactly when needed.
How Digital I/O Interfacing Works in Real-Time Systems

Digital I/O in real-time systems allows them to:

1. Monitor: The system can read digital inputs to check the state of
an external device. For example, it could read from a digital sensor that
sends a “1” if an object is detected.
2. Control: The system can send signals via digital outputs to turn
devices on or off, such as activating an alarm when certain conditions are
met.
3. Execute Time-Critical Tasks: With real-time systems, digital
inputs and outputs must be handled within strict time constraints to
ensure that actions are performed predictably and without delay.
Applications and Examples of Digital I/O Interfacing in Real-Time Systems

• Industrial Automation: Real-time systems in manufacturing often use digital I/O to

read signals from conveyor belts, motors, or robotic arms. Digital inputs might detect whether
parts are in place, while digital outputs could control relays or safety lights.
• Embedded Systems in Vehicles: In automotive applications, real-time systems use
digital inputs from sensors (such as seatbelt or door-closure sensors) and send digital outputs
to actuators (like airbags or alert lights) in time-sensitive ways.
• Home Automation: In smart home systems, digital I/O is used to read inputs from
door sensors or motion detectors and to control outputs like lights or alarms.
• Medical Devices: Digital I/O interfaces are used in equipment like ventilators or
defibrillators, where digital inputs might come from switches or buttons, and outputs might
control visual or auditory alarms in real time.
Importance of Digital I/O in Real-Time Systems

1. Reliable Control of Digital Devices: Real-time systems often

require immediate, reliable control over devices that operate with
digital signals.
2. Low Latency and Predictability: The timing of digital I/O
operations is crucial. In a real-time system, latency must be minimized
so that inputs are recognized and outputs are set precisely on schedule.
3. Safety and Stability: Many critical applications rely on digital
I/O to monitor and control physical processes in real time, and safety
mechanisms often depend on accurate timing and state changes of
these digital signals.
 CENTRALISED CONTROL IN REAL TIME SYSTEMS

Centralized control in real-time systems refers to a system architecture where a

single, central controller manages and coordinates all tasks, operations, and
decision-making processes. In this setup, the central controller gathers data from
all input sources, processes the information, and issues commands to all output
devices or actuators. Centralized control is common in real-time applications where
a single point of authority is beneficial for maintaining coherence, reliability, and
efficient resource management.
Characteristics of Centralized Control in Real-Time Systems

1. Single Point of Decision-Making: All processing and decision-making occur in the

central controller, which has complete control over the system. This centralized approach helps
to maintain consistency in how tasks are handled and priorities are set.
2. Direct Communication: Input devices (sensors) and output devices (actuators)
communicate directly with the central controller. This straightforward communication structure
reduces complexity and allows for easy integration of components.
3. Resource Management: The central controller manages all resources, including
memory, processing power, and network bandwidth, which can make the system more efficient.
Centralized management also helps prevent resource conflicts and ensures timely responses.
4. Synchronization and Coordination: With all decision-making centralized, it is easier
to synchronize tasks, manage timing, and coordinate the actions of multiple devices in real-
time. The controller can ensure that all operations adhere to strict timing constraints, which is
essential in many real-time applications.
Advantages of Centralized Control in Real-Time Systems

1. Simplicity in Design and Maintenance: Centralized control makes the system

architecture simpler, as all data flow through a single point. This makes it easier to design,
troubleshoot, and maintain the system since all control logic is in one location.
2. Consistency and Reliability: With centralized control, there is less risk of
inconsistencies or conflicts between multiple controllers. The central authority can ensure
that all components work harmoniously according to a unified set of rules and priorities.
3. Efficient Resource Allocation: Centralized control allows for better management
of resources such as processing time, memory, and energy. The central controller can
prioritize tasks, allocate resources dynamically, and prevent resource bottlenecks that might
affect performance.
4. Enhanced Security and Safety: In applications where safety and security are
paramount (e.g., medical devices, industrial control systems), centralized control can
enhance security by reducing the number of potential points of failure or unauthorized
access. This centralization is often easier to secure and monitor than a decentralized system.
Limitations of Centralized Control in Real-Time Systems

1. Single Point of Failure: Centralized control introduces a single point of failure.

If the central controller fails, the entire system may stop functioning. This can be a critical
issue in high-stakes real-time applications, such as aerospace or medical systems.
2. Scalability Issues: As the system grows, a single controller may become a
bottleneck. With more inputs and outputs to manage, the central controller may struggle
to meet timing requirements, especially in complex or large-scale real-time applications.
3. Communication Overhead: Since all data must go through the central
controller, communication delays can increase, especially if the system has a high volume
of data or if components are distrubuted over a large area (e.g., in industrial or
environmental monitoring).
4. Limited Flexibility and Redundancy: Centralized systems are often rigid. It
may be challenging to add new components or change the control structure without
redesigning the central controller. Additionally, redundancy (backup systems) can be
harder to implement, potentially reducing fault tolerance.
Applications of Centralized Control in Real-Time Systems

1. Industrial Automation: Many factories use centralized control systems where a central
programmable logic controller (PLC) manages the operations of multiple machines and sensors,
ensuring they work together efficiently and respond to changes in real time.
2. Building Management Systems: In building automation, a central controller might
monitor and control HVAC, lighting, security, and other systems to maintain energy efficiency and
safety.
3. Automotive Control Systems: Centralized Engine Control Units (ECUs) in vehicles
collect data from multiple sensors and make real-time adjustments to optimize engine performance,
fuel efficiency, and emissions.
4. Medical Devices: In life-support systems or patient monitoring, a central controller
processes data from multiple sensors (e.g., heart rate, oxygen levels) to make real-time adjustments
or trigger alarms when needed.
5. Traffic Control Systems: In centralized traffic management, a central system collects real-
time data from cameras and sensors across a city, optimizing traffic light patterns, managing
congestion, and improving emergency response.
 HIERARCHICAL SYSTEMS IN REAL TIME SYSTEMS

Hierarchical systems in real-time systems are structured with multiple levels

of controllers, each with specific roles, responsibilities, and levels of decision-
making authority. These systems are organized in a layered fashion, where
higher-level controllers oversee broader tasks and coordinate lower-level
controllers, which handle more detailed and localized tasks. Hierarchical
control structures provide a balance between centralized and decentralized
approaches, offering advantages in scalability, flexibility, and fault tolerance.
Structure of Hierarchical Systems

Hierarchical systems generally have the following levels:

1. High-Level Control (Supervisory or Planning Layer):

• The highest level in the hierarchy focuses on overall system goals, long-term planning, and coordinating
the actions of lower-level controllers.
• Examples include mission planning in autonomous vehicles or overall process management in industrial
automation.
2. Mid-Level Control (Coordination or Management Layer):
• This layer translates high-level goals and plans into specific tasks or objectives for individual
subsystems.
• It is responsible for task allocation, resource management, and ensuring that subsystems operate in
harmony with one another.
3. Low-Level Control (Execution or Operational Layer):
• This is the lowest layer, where specific actions and real-time control occur.
• Low-level controllers interact directly with sensors, actuators, and other physical devices, managing tasks
like motor control, temperature regulation, or data collection in real time.
Key Characteristics of Hierarchical Systems

1. Layered Decision-Making: Each layer is responsible for different types of

decisions, allowing the system to manage both strategic and immediate tasks effectively.
High-level controllers focus on goals, mid-level on task allocation, and low-level on
execution.
2. Modular Structure: By dividing responsibilities across levels, hierarchical
systems are often more modular and easier to scale. Individual subsystems or components
can be adjusted or expanded with minimal impact on other layers.
3. Information Flow and Coordination: Data flows up the hierarchy, with each
level aggregating and processing information before sending it higher. Commands flow
down, where each level translates high-level instructions into more specific actions.
4. Fault Tolerance: Hierarchical systems can improve fault tolerance, as a failure in
a lower-level controller may not compromise the entire system. Higher-level controllers
can reassign tasks if a lower-level component fails.
Advantages of Hierarchical Systems in Real-Time Systems

1. Scalability: The modular structure makes it easier to add or modify components at any
level. This flexibility is particularly useful in complex systems, such as large-scale industrial
automation or smart cities, where the system can grow in size and functionality over time.
2. Improved Responsiveness and Efficiency: Lower-level controllers handle real-time,
localized tasks quickly, while higher levels focus on coordination and planning. This reduces the
load on the central controller and enables faster response times for critical actions.
3. Efficient Resource Management: Hierarchical systems allow higher levels to manage
resources across the system, assigning priorities, balancing loads, and avoiding bottlenecks. Mid-
level controllers ensure that resources are allocated to meet system-wide objectives while respecting
real-time constraints.
4. Simplified System Complexity: By dividing tasks across layers, the system can manage
complex operations more effectively. Each level is only responsible for a subset of tasks,
simplifying the design, maintenance, and troubleshooting processes.
5. Fault Tolerance and Redundancy: If a low-level controller fails, mid-level or high-level
controllers can often reassign tasks to other controllers, enhancing system resilience. This improves
fault tolerance, especially in safety-critical applications.
Applications of Hierarchical Systems in Real-Time Systems

1. Manufacturing and Industrial Automation: In automated factories, a hierarchical system

might have a top-level controller overseeing the entire production process, mid-level controllers
managing specific sections (e.g., assembly, packaging), and low-level controllers operating individual
machines in real time.
2. Autonomous Vehicles: In an autonomous vehicle, the high-level control may handle navigation
and route planning, mid-level control could manage lane changes and obstacle avoidance, while low-
level control manages sensor data, braking, and acceleration in real time.
3. Smart Grids: In power systems, a hierarchical structure might involve high-level controllers
managing regional energy distribution, mid-level controllers balancing loads between substations, and
low-level controllers monitoring local sensors and switches to respond to load changes in real time.
4. Healthcare Systems: In medical monitoring systems, high-level control might oversee patient
care across multiple departments, mid-level control might allocate resources within a single department,
and low-level control handles patient monitoring and immediate alerts.
5. Traffic Management Systems: In urban traffic systems, the top layer manages city-wide flow
and priorities, mid-level controls manage areas or intersections, and low-level controllers operate signals
and sensors for local traffic in real time.
 DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS IN REAL TIME SYSTEMS

Distributed systems in real-time applications involve multiple, independent

processors or controllers, geographically or functionally separated, working
together to perform real-time tasks. Each node (or subsystem) in a distributed
real-time system is responsible for specific functions or tasks and communicates
with other nodes over a network to coordinate actions and share data. Distributed
systems enhance fault tolerance, scalability, and flexibility by spreading out
control, processing, and data handling across different parts of the system, rather
than relying on a single central controller.
Characteristics of Distributed Real-Time Systems

1. Multiple Independent Nodes: Each node operates independently and may include its
own processor, memory, and I/O capabilities. Nodes are usually specialized to handle specific
tasks or subsets of tasks within the overall system.
2. Networked Communication: Nodes communicate over a network, which may be wired
or wireless. Communication protocols are often optimized for low latency and real-time
reliability, ensuring that data and commands are delivered promptly and predictably.
3. Decentralized Control: Instead of a single centralized controller, control is
decentralized across nodes, with each node handling its own local tasks. In some cases, there may
still be a coordinating node, but it’s not a single point of failure.
4. Parallel Processing: Distributed systems enable parallel processing by dividing tasks
among multiple nodes. Each node processes its tasks concurrently, which can improve response
times and overall efficiency, especially for complex applications with many inputs and outputs.
5. Real-Time Constraints: Each node in a distributed real-time system must meet strict
timing constraints. The system is designed to ensure that all nodes respond within their deadlines,
with the network providing the necessary bandwidth and low-latency communication.
Advantages of Distributed Real-Time Systems

1. Scalability: Distributed systems can be scaled by adding more nodes, making it easier to
expand or modify the system without major redesigns. This scalability is beneficial for
applications that may grow over time, like industrial automation or smart cities.
2. Fault Tolerance and Reliability: If one node fails, other nodes can continue operating,
minimizing the impact on the overall system. In some systems, tasks can even be reassigned to
other nodes, increasing resilience and fault tolerance.
3. Efficient Use of Resources: With decentralized control, each node manages only its
specific resources, allowing the system to make more efficient use of processing power, memory,
and energy. This is particularly valuable in applications with high computational or power
demands.
4. Parallel Execution and Speed: By allowing nodes to execute tasks in parallel,
distributed systems can achieve faster processing for complex applications. For example, a
distributed system can simultaneously monitor multiple sensors or process multiple data streams.
5. Geographical Flexibility: Distributed systems can be spread across large areas, with
nodes positioned close to the sources of data or control points. This reduces the need for long
Challenges in Distributed Real-Time Systems

1. Communication Delays: Distributed systems rely on network communication, which introduces

potential delays, especially in wireless or large-scale networks. Low-latency, real-time communication protocols
are essential to keep delays within acceptable limits.
2. Synchronization and Coordination: Each node operates independently, which can make it challenging
to synchronize actions or ensure data consistency across the system. Distributed real-time systems often use time-
stamped messages, global clocks, or synchronization algorithms to coordinate actions.
3. Complex System Design: Designing, implementing, and testing distributed systems is more complex
than centralized systems. Engineers must consider network reliability, data consistency, and failure management
strategies.
4. Reliability and Redundancy Requirements: Distributed systems are often mission-critical, requiring
high reliability and redundancy. To maintain reliability, the system needs to manage network failures, node
failures, and data inconsistencies.
5. Resource Constraints: Each node may have limited processing power, memory, or energy, especially in
applications like sensor networks. Designers must balance real-time performance requirements with resource
constraints.
 5 :DATA ACQUISITION IN REAL TIME SYSTEMS

Data acquisition (DAQ) in real-time systems is the process of collecting and

processing data from various sensors and input sources in real time, allowing
the system to monitor, analyze, and respond to physical processes or
environmental conditions. In real-time systems, data acquisition must happen
continuously or at specific intervals to ensure that the system has the most
recent data, enabling accurate, immediate responses to changing conditions .
Key Components of Data Acquisition in Real-Time Systems

1. Sensors: These devices measure physical quantities (like temperature, pressure, speed, or humidity) and
convert them into electrical signals, which can be either analog or digital.
2. Signal Conditioning: The electrical signals from sensors often need to be prepared before they can be
accurately interpreted by the DAQ system. Signal conditioning may include:
• Amplification: Increasing the signal strength for better resolution.
• Filtering: Removing noise to isolate the desired signal.
• Isolation: Protecting the DAQ system from high voltages or other external interference.
3. Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC): When data is in analog form, an ADC is used to convert the
continuous signal into a digital format that the real-time system can interpret.
4. Digital-to-Analog Converters (DAC): If the real-time system needs to output data to control analog
devices (such as motors or heaters), a DAC converts the digital output signals into analog form.
5. DAQ Hardware Interface: A DAQ board or module connects sensors, ADCs, DACs, and signal
conditioning circuits with the central processing unit of the real-time system. It acts as an intermediary, ensuring
efficient data transfer.
6. Real-Time Software and Data Processing: The software in a real-time system coordinates the
acquisition, processing, and storage of data.
The Data Acquisition Process in Real-Time Systems

1. Data Collection: The system collects data from various sensors, with each
sensor generating a stream of measurements. For example, a temperature sensor might
output a signal that changes as the temperature fluctuates.
2. Signal Conditioning and Conversion: If the sensor outputs analog data, it is
conditioned and converted to digital form using an ADC. Digital data can then be
processed by the real-time system.
3. Data Processing: The system processes the incoming data to analyze current
conditions, compare it to thresholds, or detect patterns. This processing might involve
filtering noise, calculating averages, or identifying anomalies.
4. Storage and Logging: In some real-time systems, data is logged for later
analysis or audit purposes, although the main focus remains on real-time processing
rather than long-term storage.
5. Response and Control: Based on the processed data, the system makes
decisions in real time. For example, if a temperature sensor detects that the temperature
has reached a dangerous level, the system might trigger an alarm or activate cooling
mechanisms.
Applications of Data Acquisition in Real-Time Systems

1. Industrial Automation: DAQ systems monitor parameters like

pressure, vibration, and flow rate in manufacturing environments, ensuring
machines operate within safe and efficient limits.
2. Medical Monitoring: In healthcare, real-time DAQ systems capture
vital signs (heart rate, oxygen levels) to provide immediate feedback and
alarms if critical thresholds are crossed.
3. Automotive Systems: In vehicles, DAQ systems gather real-time
data from sensors related to engine performance, speed, and braking,
enabling quick adjustments for optimal performance and safety.
4. Environmental Monitoring: Real-time data acquisition systems are
used in weather stations and environmental monitoring systems to track
temperature, humidity, air quality, and other environmental factors in real
time.
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