1

Toxic
Effects of
Insect 1

Poison
Submitted By – Muskaan Bindal
(104FSBSMS2122005)
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IMPORTANCE OF
INSECT TOXINS
Insects are under the classification of Arthropoda which is one of the most
successful Phyla of the Animal World and can be found in a variety of
different habitats. Many of these insects exhibit various kinds of toxins.
Different species of arachnids, for example, are able to produce toxic
compounds to defend themselves or to capture prey. Knowing the
mechanisms of action of these poisons enables one to adequately deal with
the wounds inflicted on a person by the insects, as these may sometimes
result in death. These toxins may also, in the opposite manner, be utilized
2 for
the good of mankind. Pain relief, antimicrobial materials and anticancer
remedies are some of the spheres in which these substances find application
owing to their complex chemical structures and diverse biological activities. In
addition, some of these chemically intense pheromones produced by insects
might be useful in enhancing pest management strategies in agriculture.
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Hymenoptera
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Apis mellifera
Bees can possibly attack due to protective aggression, as their
venom is lethal. It consists of several bioactive components, the
most harmful of which is melittin and lead to pain. It has been
also reported that phospholipase A2 is another important
enzyme present in the bee that does evoke IgE mediated
allergic response which is severe. Some people may also have
an allergic response to these allergens which possess a risk of
anaphylactic shock, which in unattended situations can be fatal.
However, a single bee sting is not particularly dangerous, the
consequences of multiple bee stings are countless, including 4

kidney failure and muscle wasting, which can be fatal.

Moffat, A. C., de Silva, J. A., Woodhouse, P., & Kananoko, K. (Eds.). (2011). Clarke's analysis of drugs and poisons (4th Revised ed.). Pharmaceutical Press.
5
Effect of toxins
The bee sting venom, once injected through the skin
results in pain and redness/swelling via histamine release
as well other inflammatory mediators within tissues. In
severe instances it can cause hives and generalized allergy
symptoms as well, which includes the type of life
threatening reaction called anaphylaxis with wheezing or
low blood pressure.
Components of a bee sting termed melittin cause pain,
redness and swelling at the stung site. In allergic patients,
it induces more systematic reactions such as hives,
respiratory distress or dizziness. It can cause anaphylaxis,
a life-threatening condition with throat tightening and low 5

blood pressure in the worst cases.

Elieh-Ali-Komi, Daniel & Shafaghat, Farzaneh & Zwiener, Ricardo. (2018). Immunology of Bee Venom. Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology. 54. 10.1007/s12016-017-8597-4.
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Vespidae
Wasps have an elongated body and a narrow waist and
are common aggressive insects classified under the order
Hymenoptera and family Vespidae. Several species occur
in Europe, one of the more familiar being the common
wasp (Vespula vulgaris) known for its black and yellow
stripes and the pain of its sting. Wasp activities are
essential in ecosystems as they help control pests and
also facilitate in pollination. A wasp's venom, being a
mixture of several peptides and enzymes, is a health
threat. Prominent among them are mastoparan that cause
6 hay fever and other allergies by causing the breakdown of
histamine, and phospholipase A1, a poisonous enzyme
that triggers allergic reactions.

Moffat, A. C., de Silva, J. A., Woodhouse, P., & Kananoko, K. (Eds.). (2011). Clarke's analysis of drugs and poisons (4th Revised ed.). Pharmaceutical Press.
Moffat, A. C., de Silva, J. A., Woodhouse, P., & Kananoko, K. (Eds.). (2011). Clarke's analysis of drugs and poisons (4th Revised ed.). Pharmaceutical Press.
7

Effect of toxins
Wasp venom is rich in mastoparan and other neurotoxins
that can lead to nerve tissues damage along with
inflammatory agents such as amines and peptides. The
moderate inflammatory response seems to be due to the
localized action of pain-inducing compounds that are in
relatively more concentration in wasp stings. In a more
severe case, multiple stings can lead to muscle paralysis
and kidney failure. Other dangerous situations can be
venom-induced hemolysis or coagulation disorders as a
result of both bee and wasp stings.

Krishna, M.T., Ewan, P.W., Diwakar, L., Durham, S.R., Frew, A.J., Leech, S.C. and Nasser, S.M. (2011), Diagnosis and management of hymenoptera venom allergy: British Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology (BSACI)
guidelines. Clinical & Experimental Allergy, 41: 1201-1220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03788.x
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Difference Between Bee And Wasp

Sting
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CHARACTERISTICS BEE STINGS WASP STINGS

Primarily contains melittin,

phospholipase A2, and Contains mastoparans, phospholipase
Venom Composition hyaluronidase. A1, and cholinesterases.

Honey bees are typically hairy with a Wasps are usually slender with a
Appearance rounded abdomen. smooth, elongated body.

Barbed stinger; can get stuck in the

skin, leading to the bee's death after Smooth stinger; can sting multiple
Stinger stinging. times without losing the stinger.

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Also can cause allergic reactions, but
Can trigger IgE-mediated allergic usually not cross-reactive with bee
Allergic Reactions reactions; anaphylaxis is possible. venom.

Can cause systemic complications

Systemic effects may include kidney such as acute renal failure,
Symptoms of Multiple failure, respiratory distress, and rhabdomyolysis, and diffuse
Stings muscle breakdown in severe cases. intravascular coagulation.

Krishna, M.T., Ewan, P.W., Diwakar, L., Durham, S.R., Frew, A.J., Leech, S.C. and Nasser, S.M. (2011), Diagnosis and management of hymenoptera venom allergy: British Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology (BSACI)
guidelines. Clinical & Experimental Allergy, 41: 1201-1220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03788.x
10

Solenopsis invicta
The aggressive social insects with painful stings are the fire ants, mainly the red
imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta. It features reddish-brown coloring and an
oval body shape. Fire ants are highly infamous for their ability to swarm and
deliver multiple stings in the shortest time possible. Their venom has a
combination of allergens and toxins, including phospholipase A1. It can cause
extreme, intense pain and inflammation at the site of the stings and other
components with potential to cause allergic effects. Fire ant stings can cause
localized symptoms: itching and burning; some systemic effects in sensitive
persons, including anaphylaxis. Mass stinging occurs if the nests are disturbed.
During such events, the chances of major reactions increase.

10

Sukprasert, Sophida & Uawonggul, Nunthawun & Jamjanya, Tasanee & Thammasirirak, Sompong & Daduang, Jureerut & Daduang, Sakda. (2012). Characterization of the allergen Sol gem 2 from the fire ant venom, Solenopsis geminata. Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including
Tropical Diseases. 18. 10.1590/S1678-91992012000300010.
11

Effect of toxins
The venom initially affects activation of local inflammation processes, causing to
the area where the wound- inflammation a more severe ‘sore’, swelling, and
redness. Some people may have strong allergic responses, including
anaphylactic shock. Toxins present in the venom disrupt the cells of the skin,
and this necrosis could even cause blisters. Systemic effects include fever and
nausea, as well as severe cases of respiratory distress.

During the initial exposure to fire ant venom, a venom antigen is processed by
dendritic cells. This leads to the activation of T cells that stimulate B cells to
synthesize allergen-specific IgE. The antigen-bound IgE then attaches to mast
cells, which are then reactivated upon second exposure to the venom. This
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involves the release of mediators of inflammation, culminating in an excessive
immune response with exaggerated swelling and recruitment of eosinophils,
thus leading to allergic reactions.

Zamith-Miranda, Daniel & Fox, Eduardo & Teixeira Monteiro, Ana Paula & Gama, Diogo & Poublan, Luiz & Araujo, Almair & Araujo, Maria & Atella, Georgia & Machado, Ednildo & Diaz, Bruno. (2018). The allergic response mediated by fire ant venom proteins. 10.1101/382697.
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Arachnid
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Latrodectus
mactans
The black widow spider (Latrodectus mactans), highly
venomous, with a characteristic black body and a red
hourglass figure on its abdomen. They are limited to the
southern part of the western United States and some
areas of Mexico and Canada, staying in dark, secluded
places-like woodstacks, garages, and basements.
Moffat, A. C., de Silva, J. A., Woodhouse, P., & Kananoko, K. (Eds.). (2011). Clarke's analysis of drugs and poisons (4th Revised ed.). Pharmaceutical Press.
14
Effect of toxins
Its venom contains a potent neurotoxin-alpha-latrotoxin,
which causes excessive neurotransmitter release by binding
to presynaptic membranes, therefore disrupting nerve
functions. While the local symptoms that follow a bite might
include mild pain and reddening, others might include severe
cramping of the muscles, hypertension, pulmonary edema,
nausea, and central nervous system disturbances. CNS
dysfunction also seen in children.

14

Henkel, Andreas & Sankaranarayanan, S. (1999). Mechanisms of alpha-latrotoxin action. Cell and tissue research. 296. 229-33.
15

Hottentotta tamulus
Hottentotta tamulus or, better known as the Indian red scorpion have a distinct
morphology. It has a reddish-brown or yellowish exoskeleton, is about 5 to 8 cm
in length, with a thin body and a distinct segregated tail. The tail is armed with a
stinger and has venom glands. Well-developed and prehensile claws are also
known as the pedipalps. The body consists of a cephalothorax having two central
and a few smaller, lateral eyes. The legs are slender casting the spider in a
position of rapid movement.

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Strong, P. N., Mukherjee, S., Shah, N., Chowdhary, A., & Jeyaseelan, K. (2014). Scorpion Venom Research Around the World: Indian Red Scorpion. Toxinology. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38009-4_1
Scorpion Venom Research Around
the World: Indian Red Scorpion
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Living reference work entry
First Online: 01 January 2014
pp 1–13

Effect of toxins
Cite this living reference work entry

Toxinology
Peter N. Strong, Sandeepan
Mukherjee, Nakul Shah, Abhay
Chowdhary & Kandiah Jeyaseelan
In mild cases of H. tamulus envenoming, there occurs vasoconstriction and
hypertension due to a massive release of catecholamines. In worse cases,
hypotension, pulmonary edema, and myocardial dysfunction may occur. Animal
studies have indicated that the catecholamine release is due to prolonged
sodium channel activation and potassium channel inhibition. Pulmonary edema
involves many sub-cellular events: bradykinin activation and stimulation of
central serotonin receptor subtypes. Treatment with a specific antiserum (with or
without the α-adrenoreceptor blocker, prazosin , depending on symptoms and
clinical severity) is the most popular therapy nowadays. The few constituents of
venom that have been characterized in detail include iberiotoxin, a specific
blocker of high-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels; and
tamapin, a specific blocker of low-conductance calcium-activated potassium
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channels.

Strong, P. N., Mukherjee, S., Shah, N., Chowdhary, A., & Jeyaseelan, K. (2014). Scorpion Venom Research Around the World: Indian Red Scorpion. Toxinology. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38009-4_1
17

Ixodus holocyclus
Ixodes holocyclus, known as the eastern paralysis tick, is
a major and serious species of tick that is native to
eastern Australia and is particularly common in the
coastal and forested regions. It is relative in size and
larger sexually dimorphic with larger adult females. It has
its comparatively flat oval body either reddish brown or
grayish. It enjoys humid, thickly vegetated environments
where it can easily attach to a variety of hosts, including
man, dogs, and livestock.

17

Moffat, A. C., de Silva, J. A., Woodhouse, P., & Kananoko, K. (Eds.). (2011). Clarke's analysis of drugs and poisons (4th Revised ed.). Pharmaceutical Press.
18
Effect of toxins
This toxin is produced in the salivary glands of feeding ticks
and injected into their host with the tick's saliva. In the host,
this toxin causes presynaptic reduction of acetylcholine
release at the neuromuscular junction. The clinical
presentation is usually a myriad of signs and symptoms that
include lethargy, weakness, unsteady gait, dilated pupils,
ascending symmetrical paralysis, slurred speech, and
decreased deep-tendon and gag reflexes. Respiratory
distress, bradycardia, decreased oxygen saturation, and even
asystole may occur.
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Ticks Resist Skin Commensals with Immune Factor of Bacterial Origin Hayes, Beth M. et al. Cell, Volume 183, Issue 6, 1562 - 1571.e12
Hexapoda
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Lytta vesicatoria
The Spanish fly (Lytta vesicatoria), a blister beetle, has
an elongated, metallic green body measuring about 15-
22mm in length. It has thin legs and long antennae and
its wing covers, known as elytra, meet along the midline
of its back. The body of the beetle secretes a blistering
compound-cantharidin-which produces blisters when it
comes in contact with skin.

20

Mayberry, K. M., Brockington, P. S., Phan, V. T., & Ray, S. D. (2021b). Drugs of abuse. In Side effects of drugs annual (pp. 41–69).
https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.seda.2021.09.003
Effect of toxins
Cantharidin, a toxic agent derived from the Spanish fly (blister beetle), strongly
inhibits protein phosphatases 1 and 2A, disrupting cellular processes. While
further toxicological studies are required, the most probable mechanism of
action for urine exposure mainly concerns the binding of cantharidin to the
serum albumin molecule and its excretion through the glomerular-filtration
system, causing damage and the development of acute tubular necrosis in the
kidney. Poisoning with cantharidin shows signs such as blistering of the oral
cavity and urinary tract, gastrointestinal disturbances (cramping, vomiting,
haematemesis), dysuria, and the presence of blood in the urine (haematuria).
This renal impairment is characterized by a reduction in urine output (oliguria),
disturbance in the blood electrolyte balance, and in significant conditions, it
constitutes renal failure associated with histopathological findings which include
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renal engorgement, hemorrhage, and tubular degeneration.

Mayberry, K. M., Brockington, P. S., Phan, V. T., & Ray, S. D. (2021b). Drugs of abuse. In Side effects of drugs annual (pp. 41–69).
https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.seda.2021.09.003
 Pederin
Ixodes holocyclus, known as the eastern paralysis tick, is
a major and serious species of tick that is native to
eastern Australia and is particularly common in the
coastal and forested regions. It is relative in size and
larger sexually dimorphic with larger adult females. It has
its comparatively flat oval body either reddish brown or
grayish. It enjoys humid, thickly vegetated environments
where it can easily attach to a variety of hosts, including
man, dogs, and livestock.

22

Nasir S, Akram W, Khan RR, Arshad M, Nasir I. Paederus beetles: the agent of human dermatitis. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis. 2015 Feb 25;21:5. doi: 10.1186/s40409-015-0004-0. PMID: 25767507; PMCID: PMC4357090.
 Effect of toxins
Rove beetles in the genus Paederus produce pederin
(C25H45O9N), a potent toxin more powerful than Latrodectus
spider venom. Biosynthesized by endosymbiotic bacteria of
the genus Pseudomonas in females, it can elicit dermatitis at
anybody site; the most affected areas are those having the
greatest exposure, like the head, arms, hands, and legs.
Symptoms typically appear 1–3 days post-contact and include
itching, a burning sensation, and reddened skin that develops
vesicles, which may become purulent. It may be as severe, if
not more severe, in its pathogenesis than meloid-induced
23 dermatitis, leaving behind red marks or hypopigmented skin.
For instance, formulation secretion into the eye provokes
painful symptoms; victims working in brightly illuminated
areas such as oil rigs are prone to experiencing the so-called
"night burn."

dermatitis

Nasir S, Akram W, Khan RR, Arshad M, Nasir I. Paederus beetles: the agent of human dermatitis. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis. 2015 Feb 25;21:5. doi: 10.1186/s40409-015-0004-0. PMID: 25767507; PMCID: PMC4357090.
Thank
you very
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much!
REFRENCES:
1. Nasir S, Akram W, Khan RR, Arshad M, Nasir I. Paederus beetles: the agent of human dermatitis. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis. 2015 Feb 25;21:5. doi: 10.1186/s40409-015-0004-0. PMID:
25767507; PMCID: PMC4357090.
2. Mayberry, K. M., Brockington, P. S., Phan, V. T., & Ray, S. D. (2021b). Drugs of abuse. In Side effects of drugs annual (pp. 41–69). https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.seda.2021.09.003
3. Ticks Resist Skin Commensals with Immune Factor of Bacterial Origin Hayes, Beth M. et al. Cell, Volume 183, Issue 6, 1562 - 1571.e12

4. Strong, P. N., Mukherjee, S., Shah, N., Chowdhary, A., & Jeyaseelan, K. (2014). Scorpion Venom Research Around the World: Indian Red Scorpion. Toxinology. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-
38009-4_1
5. Henkel, Andreas & Sankaranarayanan, S. (1999). Mechanisms of alpha-latrotoxin action. Cell and tissue research. 296. 229-33.

6. Zamith-Miranda, Daniel & Fox, Eduardo & Teixeira Monteiro, Ana Paula & Gama, Diogo & Poublan, Luiz & Araujo, Almair & Araujo, Maria & Atella, Georgia & Machado, Ednildo & Diaz, Bruno. (2018).
The allergic response mediated by fire ant venom proteins. 10.1101/382697.
7. Schoonhoven, L. M., & de Boer, J. G. (2016). Venom toxins of fire ants. In Venom Toxins of Fire Ants (pp. 149–167). First Online: 01 January 2016.
8. Krishna, M.T., Ewan, P.W., Diwakar, L., Durham, S.R., Frew, A.J., Leech, S.C. and Nasser, S.M. (2011), Diagnosis and management of hymenoptera venom allergy: British Society for Allergy and
Clinical Immunology (BSACI) guidelines. Clinical & Experimental Allergy, 41: 1201-1220. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03788.x
9. Elieh-Ali-Komi, Daniel & Shafaghat, Farzaneh & Zwiener, Ricardo. (2018). Immunology of Bee Venom. Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology. 54. 10.1007/s12016-017-8597-4.
10. Moffat, A. C., de Silva, J. A., Woodhouse, P., & Kananoko, K. (Eds.). (2011). Clarke's analysis of drugs and poisons (4th Revised ed.). Pharmaceutical Press.
11. Sukprasert, Sophida & Uawonggul, Nunthawun & Jamjanya, Tasanee & Thammasirirak, Sompong & Daduang, Jureerut & Daduang, Sakda. (2012). Characterization of the allergen Sol gem 2 from
the fire ant venom, Solenopsis geminata. Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases. 18. 10.1590/S1678-91992012000300010.

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