Figure 12.

1 Data link layer divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers

This chapter focus on the Medium/Multiple Access Control (MAC) Sublayer

12.1
 Objectives

Questions to be answered in this chapter?

 What is the channel allocation problem?

 How is a channel divided between competing users?

 What is Medium Access Control (MAC)?

 What protocols are used for allocating a multiple access channel?

 Data Link Switching

2
 MAC Sublayer

What is MAC?

 Medium Access Control (MAC) is a sublayer of the Data-link layer.

 The protocols used to determine who goes next on a multiaccess channel belong to a MAC sublayer.

 MAC is important in LAN, which uses a multiaccess channel as the basis for communication.

3
 Channel Allocation Problem

 There are two schemes to allocate a single channel among competing

users:

1. Dynamic Channel Allocation (ALOHA, CSMA,..)

2. Static Channel Allocation (FDM, TDM,…)

 In this chapter, we focused on dynamic techniques since they are the most

common techniques and more efficient. 5

 Assumptions for Dynamic Channel Allocation

1. Independent traffic
2. Single channel
3. Observable Collisions
4. Continuous or slotted time
5. Carrier sense or no carrier sense

6
 Channel and Traffic
A single channel is available for all communications.
 All stations can transmit on it and all can receive from it.

Independent traffic: The model consists of N independent

stations (e.g., computers, telephones),
 each with a program or user that generates frames for transmission.

7
 Observable Collisions

If two frames are transmitted simultaneously, they overlap in time

and the resulting signal is garbled. This event is called a collision.

All stations can detect that a collision has occurred.

A collided frame must be transmitted again later.

8
 Continuous or slotted time

 Time may be assumed continuous, in which case frame transmission can begin
at any instant.
 Alternatively, time may be slotted or divided into discrete intervals (called slots).
 Frame transmissions must then begin at the start of a slot.
 A slot may contain 0, 1, or more frames
 corresponding to an idle slot, a successful transmission, or a collision,
respectively.

9
 Carrier sense or no carrier sense
 With the carrier sense assumption, stations can tell if the channel is in
use before trying to use it.
 No station will attempt to use the channel while it is sensed as busy.
 If there is no carrier sense, stations cannot sense the channel before
trying to use it.
 They just go ahead and transmit.
 Only later can they determine whether the transmission was successful.

10
Figure 12.2 Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols discussed in this chapter

12.11
 12-1 RANDOM ACCESS

• In random access or contention methods

• no station is superior to another station
• none is assigned the control over another
• No station permits, or does not permit, another station to send
• A station that has data to send uses a procedure defined by the protocol to decide on whether to send.

Protocols:
• ALOHA
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance

12.12
 ALOHA

• Earliest random-access method (Uni. of Hawaii, 1970)

• Designed for shared medium networks such as wireless LAN.

 The medium is shared between the stations.

 There are potential collisions in this arrangement.

 When a station sends data, another may attempt at the same time.

 The data from the two stations collide and become garbled.

• Two variations of ALOHA

 Pure ALOHA

 Slotted ALOHA

12.13
Figure 12.3 Frames in a pure ALOHA network

12.14
 Multiple Access Protocols: Pure ALOHA

Allow users transmit whenever they have data to send

There will be collisions, of course, and the colliding frames will
be damaged
If the frame was destroyed, the sender just waits a random
amount of time and sends it again.
Why Random Time?

15
Figure 12.4 Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol

12.16
 Example 12.1

The stations on a wireless ALOHA network are a maximum of 600 km apart. If we

8
assume that signals propagate at 3 × 10 m/s, we find

3 8
Tp = (600 × 10 ) / (3 × 10 ) = 2 ms.

Now we can find the value of TB for different values of K .

a. For K = 1, the range is {0, 1}. The station needs to generate a random number with a value of 0

or 1. This means that TB is either 0 ms (0 × 2) or 2 ms (1 × 2), based on the outcome of the

random variable.

12.17
 Example 12.1 (continued)

b. For K = 2, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3}. This means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, or 6 ms, based on the

outcome of the random variable.

c. For K = 3, the range is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. This means that TB can be 0, 2, 4, 8, 10, 12, or 14

ms, based on the outcome of the random variable.

d. if K > 10, it is normally set to 10.

12.18
Figure 12.5 Vulnerable time for pure ALOHA protocol

12.19
 Example 12.2

A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps. What is

the requirement to make this frame collision-free?

Solution
Recall that:

Transmission Time= Frame Size​/ Transmission Rate

Average frame transmission time Tfr is

200 bits/200 kbps or 1 ms.

The vulnerable time is 2 × 1 ms = 2 ms.

This means a collision would happen if another station sends within 1ms before

this station starts transmission, or another station starts sending during the one 1-

ms period that this station is sending.

12.20
 Let us call G the average number of

frames generated by the system during

one frameThetransmission
throughput for pure time.
ALOHA is
−2G
S=G×e .

when G= (1/2):
(−2*0.5)
The maximum throughput = 0.5 * e

Therefore Smax = 0.184

This tells us that about 18.5% of the sent frame will survive (get to destination correctly)

* Euler's Number 'e' is the numerical constant : 12.21

 Example 12.3

A pure ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps.

What is the throughput if the system (all stations together) produces:

a. 1000 frames per second

b. 500 frames per second

c. 250 frames per second.

12.22
 Example 12.3 (continued)

Solution

The frame transmission time is 200/200 Kbps or 1 ms.

a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1 frame per millisecond.

The load is 1. In this case

−2 G
S=G×e or S = 0.135

(i.e., 13.5 percent of the frames are expected to survive).

• This means that the throughput is 1000 × 0.135 = 135 frames per second.
• Only 135 frames out of 1000 will probably survive.

12.23
 Example 12.3 (continued)

b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is (1/2) frame per millisecond. The

load is (1/2). In this case

−2G
S=G×e or S = 0.184 (or 18.4 percent).
• This means that the throughput is 500 × 0.184 = 92 and that only 92 frames out of

500 will probably survive.

• Note that this is the maximum throughput case, percentagewise

• i.e., the value of G that maximizes the throughput in Pure ALOHA is 0.5
• ≈ 0.18395 throughput in terms of percentage

12.24
 Example 12.3 (continued)

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4)

frame per millisecond.

The load is (1/4). In this case

2G
S=G×e− or S = 0.152 (15.2 percent).

• This means the throughput is 250 × 0.152 = 38.

• Only 38 frames out of 250 will probably survive.

12.25
 Slotted ALOHA
• Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA.

• The proposal: divide the time into discrete intervals

• each interval corresponds to one frame.

• Here, a computer can not send anytime;

• instead, it is required to wait for the beginning of the time slot.

• The big advantage of Slotted ALOHA is the increase in channel utilization.

26
 Figure 12.6 Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

Here, We divide the time into slots of Tfr seconds and force the

station to send only at the beginning of the time slot.

12.27
As a result:

The throughput for slotted ALOHA is

−G
S=G×e .

For example, the maximum throughput when G = 1 is:

Smax = 0.368

12.28
Figure 12.7 Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA protocol

12.29
 Example 12.4

A slotted ALOHA network transmits 200-bit frames on a shared channel of 200 kbps.

What is the throughput if the system (all stations together) produces

a. 1000 frames per second

b. 500 frames per second

c. 250 frames per second.

12.30
 Example 12.4 (continued)

Solution

The frame transmission time is 200/200 Kbps or 1 ms.

a. If the system creates 1000 frames per second, this is 1 frame per millisecond.

The load is 1. In this case:

−G
S = G× e or S = 0.368 (36.8 percent).

This means that the throughput is 1000 × 0.368 = 368 frames. Only 386 frames

out of 1000 will probably survive.

12.31
 Example 12.4 (continued)

b. If the system creates 500 frames per second, this is (1/2) frame per millisecond.

The load is (1/2). In this case

−G
S=G×e or S = 0.303 (30.3 percent)

This means that the throughput is 500 × 0.303 = 151.

Only 151 frames out of 500 will probably survive.

12.32
 Example 12.4 (continued)

c. If the system creates 250 frames per second, this is (1/4) frame per millisecond.

The load is (1/4). In this case

−G
S=G×e or S = 0.195 (19.5 percent)

This means that the throughput is 250 × 0.195 = 49.

Only 49 frames out of 250 will probably survive.

12.33
Limitations of Slotted ALOHA

• There is a limit to the best channel utilization using Slotted ALOHA.

• To reduce the chance of collisions, the station should be able to detect
what other stations are doing.
• In LAN networks, this is possible. Therefore, they can achieve better
utilization than Slotted ALOHA.
• Carrier Sense Protocols are protocols in which stations listen for a carrier.

34
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols

• What should a station do if the channel is busy?

• What should a station do if the channel is idle?

• Three methods have been devised to answer these questions (carrier

sense protocols):

- 1-persistent CSMA

- Non-persistent CSMA

- P-persistent CSMA

35
Figure 12.10 Behavior of three persistence methods

12.36
Figure 12.10 Behavior of three persistence methods

a station, prior to sending data, listens to the channel to see if anyone

else is transmitting at that moment.

- if the channel is busy, the station waits until it becomes idle.
- If the channel is idle, the station transmits a frame.
- If a collision occurs, the station waits a random amount of time and

starts all over again.

a station makes a conscious attempt to sense the channel.

After the first attempt, if the channel is idle, it sends; however, if

the channel is already in use, it waits a random period and repeats

the algorithm. (This algorithm has better utilization but longer

delays than 1-persistent CSMA.

a station transmits if the channel is idle with a probability p (it waits until

the next slot with probability q=1-p).

- The unlucky station acts as if there had been a collision (waits for a

random time).

12.37
Figure 12.11 Flow diagram for three persistence methods

12.38
 Main advantages over ALOHA

- The main advantage of persistent and non-persistent mechanisms over

ALOHA is that they ensure no station begins to transmit when it

senses the channel is busy.

- Can collisions still happen? Yes

- Is it possible to abort transmission?

12.39
 1-persistent CSMA
• When station has data to send, it listens to channel.
• Channel busy: station waits till channel is idle
• Channel idle: station transmits frame
• Collision: Station waits random time and transmits frame again

40
 1-persistent CSMA - Propagation delay

 If a station is sending and its signal has not yet reached the

second one (due to propagation delay)

 then second one detects idle channel and submits frame

 leading to a collision.

41
 Non-persistent CSMA
1. Before sending, a station senses channel.
2. If no transmission, station starts sending.
3. However, if busy, it does not continuously sense the channel
to start transmitting
4. Instead, it waits random period before repeating.

42
CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

- It is important that stations should terminate transmission as soon as

they detect a collision.

- A protocol that allows this is called CSMA/CD.

- It is widely used on LANs in the MAC sublayer.

- It is the basis of the popular Ethernet LAN.

43
CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

CSMA/CD can be in one of three states: contention, transmission, or idle.

44
 CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

• A collision can be detected by looking at the power or pulse width

of the received signal and comparing it to the transmitted signal.
• After a station detects a collision, it terminates its transmission,
waits a random period of time, and then tries again, assuming that
no other station has started transmitting in the meantime.
• A sending station must continually monitor the channel, listening
for noise bursts that might indicate a collision. For this reason,
CSMA/CD with a single channel is inherently a half-duplex system
• Because the receiving logic is in use, looking for collisions during
every transmission

45
CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

• The possibility of collision still exists because of propagation delay

• When a station sends a frame, it still takes time (although very short)
for the first bit to reach every station and for every station to sense it
• In other words, a station may sense the medium and find it idle only
because the first bit sent by another station has not yet been received

46
 CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

• For CSMA/CD to work, we need a restriction on the frame size

• Before sending the last bit of the frame
• the sending station must detect a collision
• abort the transmission if any collision is detected
• A station, once the entire frame is sent, does not keep a copy of the frame and does not monitor the
line for collision detection

47
 Minimum Frame Size of CSMA/CD
 The frame transmission time Tfr must be at least two times the maximum

propagation time Tp.

- If the two stations involved in a collision are the maximum distance apart:

- The signal from the first takes time Tp to reach the second, and

- Effect of the collision takes another time TP to reach the first.

- So, the requirement is that the first station must still be transmitting after

2Tp

48
 Example 12.5

A network using CSMA/CD has a bandwidth of 10 Mbps. If the maximum

propagation time (including the delays in the devices and ignoring the time

needed to send a jamming signal, as we will see later) is 25.6 μs, what is the

minimum size of the frame?

49
Example 12.5

Solution

The minimum frame transmission time is

Tfr = 2 × Tp = 51.2 μs
• This means, in the worst case, a station needs to transmit for a

period of 51.2 μs (to detect the collision while it is still transmitting

the frame).
• The minimum size of the frame is
• 10 Mbps × 51.2 μs = 512 bits or 64 bytes
• This is actually the minimum size of the frame for Standard

Ethernet

50
Figure 12.14 Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD

51
 Energy level

• We can say that the level of energy in a channel can have

three values: zero, normal, and abnormal.

 At the zero level, the channel is idle.

 At the normal level, a station has successfully captured the

channel and is sending its frame.

 At the abnormal level, there is a collision, and the level of

energy is greater than the normal level.

52
Figure 12.15 Energy level during transmission, idleness, or collision

53
CSMA with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

 Wireless networks.

 Collisions are avoided through the use of

CSMA/CA’s three strategies:

 the interframe space (IFS).

 the contention window (CW).

 Acknowledgments (ACK).
54
Figure 12.16 Timing in CSMA/CA

55
Note

In CSMA/CA, the IFS can also be used to define the priority of a

station or a frame.

56
Note

In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart

the timer of the contention window;

it stops the timer and restarts it when the channel becomes idle.

57
Figure 12.17 Flow diagram for CSMA/CA

58
The Channel Allocation Problem

• There are two schemes to allocate a single channel among

competing users:
• Dynamic Channel Allocation (ALOHA, CSMA,..)
• Static Channel Allocation (FDM, TDM,…)

59
Dynamic vs Static Channel Allocation

• Dynamic channel allocation is generally preferred in

• networks where there are many devices and traffic is unpredictable

• Static channel allocation may be more appropriate in

• situations where traffic is more predictable, and devices have
specific bandwidth requirements

60
 Example of Static Channel Allocation: FDM

 In this scheme, Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is used for allocating a

single channel among competing users.

 For example: if we have N users, the bandwidth will be divided into N equal-size

portions.

 ++ FDM is a simple and efficient allocation mechanism.

 - - Waste of resources when the traffic is bursty or the channel is lightly loaded.
61
Example: FDM vs. TDM

62
 Objectives

Questions to be answered in this chapter?

 What is the channel allocation problem?

 How is a channel divided between competing users?

 What is Medium Access Control (MAC)?

 What protocols are used for allocating a multiple access channel?

 Data Link Switching

63
 Data Link Layer Switching
 CONNECTING DEVICES
1. Uses of Hubs
2. Learning Switches
3. Spanning Tree Switches.
4. Routers
 Virtual LANs

64
 CONNECTING DEVICES*

• Hosts and networks do not normally operate in isolation.

• We use connecting devices to connect hosts together to make a network or to connect

networks together to make an internet.

• Connecting devices can operate in different layers of the Internet model.

• We discuss three kinds of connecting devices:

•
*Chapter 17 Connecting Devices and Virtual LANs (Forouzan et al.)
65
Figure 17.1: Three categories of connecting devices

We use connecting devices:


to connect hosts together to make a network

to connect networks together to make an internet.

Today, connecting devices can operate in different layers of the Internet model:

Hubs: operate in the first layer of the Internet model.
 66
Link-layer switches: operate in the first two layers.
Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches, Routers,
and Gateways

(a) Which device is in which layer.

(b) Frames, packets, and headers.
67
 Categories of connecting devices
• Connecting devices can operate in
different layers of the Internet model:

Hubs: operate in the first layer of
the Internet model.

Link-layer switches: operate in the
first two layers.

Routers: operate in the first three
layers.
68
Hubs

• A hub operates only in the physical layer

• A hub operates as connection point and possibly a repeater
• Signals can travel a fixed distance before attenuation endangers the
integrity of the data
• As a repeater:
• receives a signal
• regenerates it before it becomes too weak or corrupted
• sends the refreshed signal

69
Hubs

• In a star topology (common in ethernet LANs),

• a repeater is a multiport device (often called hub)
• serves as the connecting point
• also functions as a repeater

70
Hubs

• The hub does not have a link-layer address

• Does not check the MAC address of the received frame
• No filtering capability

71
 Hubs
• When a packet from station A to station B arrives at the hub
• the signal is regenerated to remove any possible corrupting noise

• the hub forwards the packet to all outgoing ports except the sender port

• (broadcast: all stations gets it, but only station B keeps it)

• A repeater has no filtering capability

Figure 17.2

72
Link-Layer Switch

• A link-layer switch (simply switch) operates in both the physical and

the data-link layers
• As a physical-layer device, it regenerates the signal it receives
• A Link-layer switch can check the MAC addresses contained in the
frame (source and destination)

• A link-layer switch has a table used in filtering decisions

73
 Link-Layer Switch

• a frame destined for station 71:2B:13:45:61:42 arrives at port 1,

• the link-layer switch consults its switching table

• frames for 71:2B:13:45:61:42 should be sent out through port 2

• no need for forwarding the frame through other ports

Figure 17.3

74
 Link-Layer Switch

• Earlier switches had switching tables that were static

• Operators needed to manually enter each table entry during switch
setup

• A better solution:
• a dynamic table that maps addresses to ports automatically

• we need a switch that gradually learns from the frames’

movements (transparent switch)

75
 Figure 17.4: Learning switch
Gradual building of table

• Example:
• A sends a frame to station D, forwarded on all three ports (floods the

network)
• However, by looking at the source address, the switch learns that station

A must be connected to port 1

• The switch adds this entry to its table. The table has its first entry now.
• When station D sends a frame to station B
• the switch has no entry for B, so it floods the network again
• However, it adds one more entry to the table related to station D.
76
Loop Problem

• Systems administrators sometimes use redundant switches

• (more than one switch between a pair of LANs)

• makes the system more reliable

• If a switch fails, another switch takes over until the failed one is repaired or replaced

• Redundancy can create loops in the system, which is not desirable

• Loops can be created when

• two or more broadcasting LANs are connected by more than one switch

77
 Loop problem in a learning switch (Part a)
Figure 17.5

1. The tables of both switches

are empty. Both forward the
frame and update their tables
based on the source address A

78
 Loop problem in a learning switch (Part b)
Figure 17.5

Now there are two copies of the frame on

LAN 2:
2. The copy sent out by the left switch is
received by the right switch, which does not
have any information about the destination
address D; it forwards the frame.
3. The copy sent out by the right switch is
received by the left switch and is sent out
for lack of information about D.
4. The tables of both switches are updated,
but still there is no information for
destination D.

79
 Loop problem in a learning switch (Part c)
Figure 17.5

• Now there are two copies of

the frame on LAN 1. Step 2 is
repeated, and both copies are
sent to LAN2 (again).

80
 Figure 17.5: Loop problem in a learning switch (Part d)
Figure 17.5

• The process continues on and so on.

81
Spanning Tree Algorithm

• To solve the looping problem

• the IEEE specification requires that switches use the Spanning Tree Algorithm

• A spanning tree is a graph in which there is no loop

• In a switched LAN
• this means creating a topology in which each LAN can be reached from any
other LAN through one path only (no loop)

82
 A system of connected LANs and its graph (Part a)

• We cannot change the physical topology of the system

(connections between switches via cables)
• but we can create a logical topology that overlays the physical one

Figure 17.6: a system with four LANs and five switches

83
 A system of connected LANs and its graph (Part b)
• both LANs and switches
shown as nodes.
• The connecting arcs show
the connection of a LAN
to a switch and vice versa.
• To find the spanning tree, a. Actual physical system

we need to assign a cost

(metric) to each arc.
• Dijkstra algorithm can be
used to find the Spanning
Tree (See Chapter 20.)

b. representation in graph theory with cost

84
Figure 17.7: Finding the shortest path and the spanning tree for a
switch.

In the spanning tree system, there

is only one path from any LAN to
any other LAN (No loops)

logical topology (overlays the physical one)

The figure shows the logical systems of LANs

with forwarding ports (solid lines) and

blocking ports (broken lines).

85
 Figure 17.7: Finding the shortest path and the spanning tree for a switch.

In the spanning tree system, there

is only one path from any LAN to

any other LAN (No loops)

The process for finding the spanning tree:

1. Every switch has a built-in ID (normally the serial number, which is unique). Each switch broadcasts this ID so that all

switches know which one has the smallest ID. The switch with the smallest ID is selected as the root switch (root of the

tree). We assume that switch S1 has the smallest ID (root switch).

2. The algorithm tries to find the shortest path (a path with the shortest cost) from the root switch to every other switch or

LAN. The shortest path can be found by examining the total cost from the root switch to the destination.

3. The combination of the shortest paths creates the shortest tree.

4. We mark the ports that are part of spanning tree, and the ports that are not part of it, the blocking ports, which block
86
the frames received by the switch.
Routers

• We will discuss routers in more detail later

• in this section, we compare them with a two-layer switch and a hub

• A router is a three-layer device; it operates in the physical, data-link,

and network layers

87
Routers

• There are three major differences between a router and a

repeater or a switch:
• A router has a physical and logical (IP) address for each of its interfaces
• A router acts only on those packets in which the link-layer destination address
matches the address of the interface at which the packet arrives
• A router changes the source and distention link-layer addresses of the packet
(source and destination MAC addresses) when it forwards the packet.

88
Figure 17.9: Routing example

Assume an organization has two separate buildings with a Gigabit

Ethernet LAN installed in each building. The organization uses switches

in each LAN. The two LANs can be connected to form a larger LAN using

10 Gigabit Ethernet technology that speeds up the connection to the

89
Ethernet and the connection to the organization server. A router then
 VIRTUAL LANS
• A station is considered part of a LAN if it physically belongs to that
LAN

• What happens if we need a virtual connection between two

stations belonging to two different physical LANs?

• We can roughly define a virtual local area network (VLAN) as a local

area network configured by software, not by physical wiring

*Section 17.2 in Reference book

 Figure 17.10: A switch connecting three LANs

The figure shows a switched LAN in an engineering firm in which nine stations are

grouped into three LANs that are connected by a switch.

• what would happen if the administrators needed to move engineers from their groups?

• The LAN configuration would need to be changed.

• The network technician must rewire.

• In a switched LAN, changes in the work group mean physical changes in the network configuration. But,,,
VIRTUAL LANS

• VLAN technology divides a LAN into logical, instead of physical, segments.

• A LAN can be divided into several logical LANs, called VLANs.
• A VLAN can be a work group in the organization.
• If a person moves from one group to another
• no need to change the physical configuration.
• The group membership in VLANs is defined by software, not hardware.
• Any station can be logically moved to another VLAN.
• All members belonging to a VLAN can receive broadcast messages
• When sent to that VLAN.
92
 Figure 17.11: A switch using VLAN software

VLAN technology allows dividing a LAN into logical segments on top of the physical

• A LAN can be divided into several logical LANs, called VLANs

• Each VLAN is a work group in the organization
• The group membership in VLANs is defined by software, not hardware
• Any station can be logically moved to another VLAN
• All members belonging to a VLAN can receive broadcast messages sent to that VLAN
• (if a station moves from VLAN 1 to VLAN 2, it only receives broadcast messages sent to VLAN 2, and there is no need
to change the physical configuration.)
Figure 17.12: Two switches in a backbone using VLAN software

VLAN technology even allows the grouping of stations connected to different switches in a VLAN.
Membership

• What characteristic can be used to group stations in a VLAN? Vendors

use different characteristics such as:
• 1. Interface Numbers: use switch interface numbers as a membership
characteristic.
• For example, the administrator can define that stations connecting to ports 1, 2,
3, and 7 belong to VLAN 1, stations connecting to ports 4, 10, and 12 belong to
VLAN 2, and so on.
Membership

• What characteristic can be used to group stations in a VLAN? Vendors

use different characteristics such as:
• 2. MAC Addresses: use the 48-bit MAC address as a membership
characteristic.
• For example, the administrator can stipulate that stations having MAC
addresses E2:13:42:A1:23:34 and F2:A1:23:BC:D3:41 belong to VLAN 1.
Membership

• What characteristic can be used to group stations in a VLAN? Vendors

use different characteristics such as:
• 3. IP Addresses: use the 32-bit IP address as a membership
characteristic.
• For example, the administrator can stipulate that stations having IP addresses
181.34.23.67, 181.34.23.72, 181.34.23.98, and 181.34.23.112 belong to VLAN 1.
Membership

• What characteristic can be used to group stations in a VLAN? Vendors

use different characteristics such as:
• 4. Multicast IP Addresses: use the multicast IP address as a
membership characteristic.
• Multicasting at the IP layer is now translated to multicasting at the data- link
layer. (Chapter 21)
Membership

• What characteristic can be used to group stations in a VLAN? Vendors

use different characteristics such as:
• 4. Combination: allows all these characteristics to be combined.
• The administrator can choose one or more characteristics when installing the
software.
• In addition, the software can be reconfigured to change the settings.
 Configuration: How are the stations grouped into different VLANs? Stations are configured in one of three

ways:

• Manual Configuration: the network administrator uses the VLAN software to

manually assign the stations into different VLANs at setup (logical not a physical
configuration).
• The term manually here means that the administrator types the port numbers,
the IP addresses, or other characteristics, using the VLAN software.
• Automatic Configuration: the stations are automatically connected or disconnected
from a VLAN using criteria defined by the administrator.
• For example, the administrator can define the project number as the criterion
for being a member of a group. When a user changes projects, he or she
automatically migrates to a new VLAN.
• Semiautomatic Configuration: A semiautomatic configuration is somewhere
between a manual configuration and an automatic configuration.
• Usually, the initializing is done manually, with migrations done automatically.
Communication between Switches

• In a multi-switched backbone,
• each switch must know:
• which station belongs to which VLAN

• the membership of stations connected to other switches.

17.101
 Communication between Switches
• For example, in Figure 17.12, switch A must know the
membership status of stations connected to switch B, and
switch B must know the same about switch A.

17.102
Communication between Switches

• Three methods have been devised to learn membership

status of stations connected to switch:
• Table Maintenance: when a station sends a broadcast frame to its group
members, the switch creates an entry in a table and records station
membership. The switches send their tables to one another periodically for
updating.
• Frame Tagging: when a frame travels between switches, an extra header is
added to the MAC frame to define the destination VLAN.
• Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM): The connection (trunk) between switches
is divided into time-shared channels. For example, if the total number of
VLANs in a backbone is five, each trunk is divided into five channels. The
traffic destined for VLAN 1 travels in channel 1, and so on.
Advantages of VLANs

• Cost and Time Reduction

• Creating Virtual Work Groups

• Security
 References
 Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (2011), Computer Networks. 5 th ed. New York, Pearson.

 Forouzan, Behrous A. (2012), Data communications and Networking. 5 th ed. New York, McGraw-Hill Inc.

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