Q1.

Basic 2pl
or(Basictwophaselocking)

Basic two-phase locking (2PL) is a concurrency control mechanism

used in database management systems to ensure serializability of
transactions. It consists of two phases: the growing phase and the
shrinking phase.
 CONT…

1. Growing phase 2. Shrinking Phase

 During the growing phase, a  In the shrinking phase, a
transaction can acquire locks on transaction can release locks but
data items but cannot release any cannot acquire any new locks.
locks.
 After a transaction has finished
 When a transaction needs to accessing all the data items it
read or write a data item, it first needs, it can release the locks it
acquires a shared (read) lock or holds.
an exclusive (write) lock on that
data item, respectively
 2. Conserative 2vpl
Conservative two-phase locking (C2PL) is a concurrency control
protocol that falls under the category of pessimistic concurrency control
mechanisms. C2PL is designed to address some of the limitations and
drawbacks of strict two-phase locking (strict 2PL) by adopting a more
conservative approach to lock management.
 Key features of conservative 2PL
1. Lock Acquisition at Transaction Start: 2. No lock release until commit:
In C2PL, transactions acquire all the  Similar to Strict 2PL, transactions in
locks they will need for their entire C2PL hold onto all acquired locks until
execution at the beginning of the they reach the commit point.
transaction.
This differs from Strict 2PL, where
locks are acquired and released  Transactions do not release any locks
dynamically during transaction prematurely, ensuring that changes
execution. made by a transaction are not visible to
other transactions until the transaction
commits.
 3.Strict 2pl
Strict two-phase locking (strict 2PL) is an extension of the basic two phase locking
(2PL) protocol with additional restrictions to ensure strictness in transaction
execution. Strict 2PL aims to prevent cascading aborts and guarantee strict
serializability of transactions
 CONT…
Benefits of strict 2PL Limitations of strict2PL
Prevents cascading aborts: By Performance overhead: The strictness of
holding locks until the commit point, lock management in Strict 2PL can lead
Strict 2PL prevents cascading aborts to increased contention and potential
and maintains data consistency. performance degradation in high-
concurrency environments.
 Ensures strict serializability:
Transactions in a system using Strict - Deadlock risk: The risk of deadlocks
2PL are guaranteed to execute in a still exists in Strict 2PL, especially in
strict serializable order, preserving the scenarios where transactions acquire
integrity of the database. locks in conflicting orders.
 4 .Rigorous 2pl:
Rigorous Two-Phase Locking (Rigorous 2PL) is a concurrency control
protocol that builds upon the principles of Strict Two-Phase Locking
(Strict 2PL) to provide a more robust and rigorous approach to lock
management in database systems.

Rigorous 2PL is designed to address some of the limitations of Strict

2PL and enhance data consistency and transaction isolation guarantees.
 Key features of Rigorous 2PL include
1.Strict lockingprotocol 2. Two phase lockin 3. Lock release at commit
Rigorous 2PL enforces Similar to Strict 2PL, In Rigorous 2PL,
a strict locking protocol Rigorous 2PL follows the
locks are released only
where transactions must two-phase locking
at the commit point of
acquire all the required protocol where
locks before accessing transactions acquire all a transaction
any data item necessary locks in a
growing phase and
release them in a
shrinking phase.
 2. Granularity of data items and multiple
granularity locking

Granularity of data items Multiple granularity locking(m)

refers to the level at which locks are Is a technique that allows different
applied within a database system. The levels of granularity for locks within a
granularity of locks can vary from database system.
coarse-grained (large units of data) to  In mgl, locks can be applied at various
fine-grained (smaller units of data). levels of granularity, such as table-level
 Different levels of granularity locks, page-level locks, or row-level
impact concurrency, performance, and locks, depending on the specific data
scalability in a database system access requirements of transactions.
Q3. Using locks for concurency
control in indexes

Locks can be used for concurrency control in indexes to ensure that

multiple transactions can access and modify index data concurrently
without causing conflicts or inconsistencies. When multiple transactions
are accessing the same index concurrently, locks are used to prevent
data corruption and maintain the integrity of the index.
 There are several ways locks can be used for
concurrency control in indexes
1. Shared locks (s-locks): 2. Exclusive locks (x-locks):
Shared locks allow multiple Exclusive locks prevent other
transactions to read data from an index transactions from reading or writing to
simultaneously. When a transaction an index while the locking transaction is
holds a shared lock on an index, other making changes.
transactions can also acquire shared  Exclusive locks are used when a
locks on the same index. transaction needs to modify the index
 Shared locks are compatible with other data and wants to ensure that no other
shared locks but incompatible with transactions can access the index until
exclusive locks. the modification is complete.
 CONT…

3. Intent locks 4. Update locks

 Intent locks indicate that a Update locks are a combination of
transaction intends to acquire a shared and exclusive locks used to
specific type of lock (shared or prevent deadlocks in certain scenarios.
exclusive) on an index or its associated  Update locks are acquired before
data. converting a shared lock to an exclusive
Intent locks are used to prevent lock and help avoid conflicts with other
conflicting lock modes at higher or transactions attempting to acquire
lower levels of granularity. exclusive locks on the same data.
 Q4.Other concurrency control issues
Concurrency control: in database systems involves managing access to shared
resources to ensure data consistency and prevent conflicts among concurrent
transactions.
In addition to multiple granularity locking, there are other concurrency control
issues such as insertion, deletion, phantom records, interactive transactions, and the
use of latches.
 CONT…
1. Insertion and deletion: 2. Phantom records:
Insertion and deletion operations can Phantom records refer to the phenomenon
introduce concurrency control where a transaction sees additional records
challenges in databases. When that were not present when the transaction
multiple transactions are concurrently started. This can occur when a transaction
inserting or deleting records in a reads a range of records multiple times,
table, conflicts may arise if proper and other transactions insert new records
locking mechanisms are not in place. within that range. To prevent phantom
It is essential to use appropriate locks records, isolation levels such as
to prevent data inconsistencies and Serializable or Repeatable Read can be
maintain the integrity of the database used to ensure consistent query results.
 CONT…
3. Interactive transactions: 4. Latches:
Interactive transactions: Latches: are low-level synchronization
involve user interactions with the mechanisms used in database systems to
database system, where users input protect critical data structures such as
commands or queries that need to be buffer pools, index structures, and control
processed concurrently with other blocks. Latches are lightweight and
transactions. Managing interactive provide short-term protection for data
transactions requires efficient structures during read and write
handling of user input, query operations. Unlike locks, latches are
processing, and response times to typically held for a short duration and do
maintain responsiveness and data not support deadlock detection or
consistency. transaction management
 When are latches used?
 Latches are used in scenarios where fine-grained synchronization is required to
ensure data structure integrity without the overhead of full-fledged locks.
Common use cases for latches include:-
 Buffer management: latches are used to protect buffer pool structures during read
and write operations to ensure data consistency and prevent corruption.
 Index maintenance: latches are employed to protect index structures when
performing insertions, deletions, or updates to maintain index integrity.
 Control block access: latches are used to serialize access to control blocks or
metadata structures to prevent concurrent modifications that could lead to
inconsistencies.
 Discuss two multiversion techniques
concurency control

 Multiversion concurrency control (MVCC) is a technique used in database systems

to manage concurrent access to data by creating multiple versions of a data item.
 This allows transactions to read consistent snapshots of the database without being
blocked by other transactions performing write operations.
 Two common multiversion techniques for concurrency control are snapshot
isolation and serializable snapshot isolation.
 CONT…

1. Snapshot isolation: is a multiversion concurrency control technique that

allows transactions to read a consistent snapshot of the database at the
beginning of the transaction.
2. Serializable snapshot isolation (SSI): is an extension of snapshot isolation
that guarantees serializability, which ensures that the execution of concurrent
transactions is equivalent to some serial order of execution.
 Q5.what is certify lock?
 A certify lock is a concurrency control mechanism used in database systems to
enforce serializability and prevent conflicts between transactions. It is a type of lock
that is acquired by a transaction to certify that it can commit its changes without
violating serializability constraints.
 Certify locks are commonly used in serializable snapshot isolation (ssi) concurrency
control techniques to enforce strict serializability and prevent anomalies such as non-
repeatable reads, write skew, and lost updates. By acquiring certify locks and
performing validation checks, transactions can ensure that their changes are
consistent with the overall state of the database and maintain data integrity in a
concurrent environment.
Q6,What are the advantage and disadvantage
of using certify locks?
Advantages of using certify locks:
1.Enforce serializability: certify locks help ensure that transactions maintain
serializability, which is a key property in database systems to prevent conflicts and
anomalies.
2. Data integrity: by acquiring certify locks and validating changes before committing,
transactions can maintain data integrity and consistency in the database.
3. Reduced conflicts: certify locks help reduce conflicts between transactions by
signaling their intention to commit changes and preventing interference from other
transactions.
4. Concurrency control: certify locks are effective in managing concurrency and
coordinating transactions to prevent issues such as non-repeatable reads and write
skew.
Q6.what are the advantage and disadvantage
of using certify locks?
Advantages of using certify locks:
1.Enforce serializability: certify locks help ensure that transactions maintain
serializability, which is a key property in database systems to prevent conflicts and
anomalies.
2. Data integrity: by acquiring certify locks and validating changes before
committing, transactions can maintain data integrity and consistency in the database.
3. Reduced conflicts: certify locks help reduce conflicts between transactions by
signaling their intention to commit changes and preventing interference from other
transactions.
4. Concurrency control: certify locks are effective in managing concurrency and
coordinating transactions to prevent issues such as non-repeatable reads and write
skew.
 CONT…
Disadvantages of using certify locks:
1. Overhead: acquiring and releasing certify locks incurs overhead in terms of
processing time and resources, which can impact the performance of the database
system, especially in high-concurrency canenvironments.
2. Deadlocks: the use of certify locks increase the likelihood of deadlocks occurring
when transactions wait for each other to release their locks, leading to potential
performance issues and delays.
3. Complexity: implementing certify locks and ensuring proper validation checks
require additional complexity in the database system, which can make it more
challenging to manage and maintain.
4. Limited scalability: in large-scale systems with a high volume of transactions, the
use of certify locks may introduce scalability limitations due to increased contention
and coordination overhead.
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