15

Lecture No. 17

Unit 3

Chapter 4

Spatial Referencing and

Positioning
 Coordinate System
Recap of
lecture Map Projection
 Spatial and planar coordinate systems
1. Spatial (or global) coordinate systems
4.1.2 are used to locate data either on the
Earth’s surface in a 3D space, or on the
Coordinate Earth’s reference surface (ellipsoid or
sphere) in a 2D space.
systems 2. Planar coordinate systems on the other
hand are used to locate data on the flat
surface of the map in a 2D space.
 2D Geographic coordinates (φ,λ)

• The most widely used global coordinate system consists of lines of

geographic Latitude (phi or φ or φ ) and longitude (lambda or λ).
• Lines of equal latitude are called parallels. They form circles on the
surface of the ellipsoid.
• Lines of equal longitude are called meridians and they form ellipses
(meridian ellipses) on the ellipsoid.
The latitude (φ) of a point P (Figure 4.10) is the angle between the
ellipsoidal normal through P ’ and the equatorial plane.
Latitude is zero on the equator (φ = 0◦ ), and increases towards the two
poles to maximum values of φ = +90 ◦ (N90◦) at the North Pole and φ = -
90◦ (S 90◦) at the South Pole.
 • 3D geographic coordinates (φ,λ,h)
3D are obtained by introducing the
ellipsoidal height h to the system.
Geographic • The ellipsoidal height (h) of a point is
the vertical distance of the point in
coordinates question above the ellipsoid.
(φ,λ,h) • It is measured in distance units along
the ellipsoidal normal from the point to
the ellipsoid surface.
• 3D geographic coordinates can be
used to define a position on the
surface of the Earth (point P)
 3D Geocentric coordinates (X,Y,Z)

• The system has its origin at the mass-centre of the Earth with the X and Y
axes in the plane of
the equator.
• The X-axis passes through the meridian of Greenwich, and the Z-axis
coincides with the Earth’s axis of rotation.
• The three axes are mutually orthogonal and form a right-handed system.
Geocentric coordinates can be used to define a position on the surface of
the Earth (point P in Figure 4.11). It should be noted that the rotational axis
of the earth changes its position over time (referred to as polar motion).
• To compensate for this, the mean position of the pole in the year 1903
(based on observations between 1900 and 1905) has been used to define
the so-called ‘Conventional International Origin’ (CIO).
• A flat map has only two dimensions: 2D
width (left to right) and length
(bottom to top). Transforming the Cartesian
three dimensional Earth into a two
dimensional map is subject of map
coordinates
projections and coordinate
transformations
(X,Y):
 A flat map has only two
dimensions: width (left to right)
and length (bottom to top).
Transforming the three
dimensional Earth into a two
dimensional map is subject of
map projections and coordinate
transformations

Pole
YES

NO
• X-axis is also sometimes called Easting and the Y-axis the
Northing).
The intersection of the X and Y-axis forms the origin.

• The plane is marked at intervals by equally spaced

coordinate lines, called the map grid. Eastings,
• Normally, the coordinates x=0 and y=0 are given to the
origin. However, sometimes large positive values are
added to the origin coordinates.
Northings
• This is to avoid negative values for the x and y
coordinates in case the origin of the coordinate system is
and map
located inside the area of interest. The point which then
has the coordinates x=0 and y=0 is called the false origin. grid:
• An example is the coordinate system used in the
Netherlands.
 • Another possibility of defining a point in a plane is
by polar coordinates.
• This is the distance d from the origin to the point
concerned and the angle α between a fixed (or zero)
2D Polar direction and the direction to the point.

coordinates • The angle α is called azimuth or bearing and is

measured in a clockwise direction.

(α,d) • It is given in angular units while the distance d is

expressed in length units.
Bearings are always related to a fixed direction (initial
bearing) or a datum line.
• In principle, this reference line can be chosen freely.
• Polar coordinates are often used in land surveying.
For some types of surveying instruments it is
advantageous to make use of this coordinate system.
• figure
 • Scale distortions: There is simply no way to flatten
out a piece of ellipsoidal or spherical surface without
Classification stretching some parts of the surface more than
of map others.
• Intermediate surfaces: Some map projections can
projections: be visualized as true geometric projections directly
onto the mapping plane, onto an intermediate
surface, which is then rolled out into the mapping
plane.
 Map
Projections

• The planar, conical, and cylindrical surfaces in Figure 4.16

are given all tangent surfaces; they touch the horizontal
reference surface in one point (plane) or along a closed
line (cone and cylinder) only.
 • The other cases are transverse projections
(symmetry axis in the equator) and oblique
projections (symmetry axis is some where
Projection between the rotation axis and equator of the
ellipsoid or sphere). These cases are illustrated
in Figure 4.18.
 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
• The Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM) uses a transverse cylinder,
secant to the horizontal reference
surface. UTM is an important
projection used worldwide. The
projection is a derivation from the
Transverse Mercator projection.
• Normal cylindrical projections are
typically used to map the world in
its entirety. Conical projections are
often used to map the different
continents, while the normal
azimuthal projection may be used
to map the polar areas. Transverse
and oblique aspects of many
projections can be used for most
parts of the world
 Map projection classification based on
distortion properties:

•In a conformal map projection the angles between lines in the map are
identical to the angles between the original lines on the curved reference
surface. This means that angles (with short sides) and shapes (of small areas)are
shown correctly on the map.
Conformal map projections represent angles correctly, but as the region
becomes larger, they show considerable area distortions.
•In an equal–area (equivalent) map projection the areas in the map are -
identical to the areas on the curved reference surface (taking into account the
map scale), which means that areas are represented correctly on the map.
•In an equidistant map projection the length of particular lines in the map are
the same as the length of the original lines on the curved reference
surface(taking into account the map scale).
• Equal-area projections on the other hand, represent areas
correctly, but as the region becomes larger, it shows
considerable distortions of angles and consequently shapes
(Figure 4.20). Maps which are to be used for measuring area
(e.g. distribution maps) often make use of an equal-area map
projection.
If a map is true to scale along the meridians (i.e.no distortion in
North-South direction) we say that the map is equidistant along
the meridians(e.g. the equidistant cylindrical projection) (Figure
4.21).
4.1.4 Coordinate transformations

• Map and GIS users are mostly confronted in their work with
transformations from one two-dimensional coordinate system to
another.
• Datum transformations are transformations
from a 3D coordinate system (i.e. horizontal datum) into another
3D coordinate system.
We may relate an unknown coordinate system to a known
coordinate system on the basis of a set of selected points whose
coordinates are known in both systems. These points may be
ground control points (GCPs) or common points such as corners
of houses or road intersections, as long as they have known
coordinates in both systems.
 2D Polar to 2D
Cartesian
transformations:
The transformation of polarcoordinates(α,d),
into Cartesian map coordinates(x,y) is done
when field measurements, angular and distance
measurements are transformed into map
coordinates. The equation for this
transformation is:

A more realistic case makes use of a translation

and a rotation to transform one system to the
other.
 Changing • The forward equation of the target
projection is used to transform the
map geographic coordinates(φ, λ) into target
projection coordinates(x′, y′).
projection:
• The first equation takes us from a
projection A into geographic
coordinates. The second takes us from
geographic coordinates (φ, λ) to
another map projection B. These
principles are illustrated in Figure 4.22.
A GIS has handled data referenced spatially with respect to the(x,y) coordinates
of a specific map projection.
• For GIS application domains requiring 3D spatial referencing, a height
coordinate may be added to the(x,y) coordinate of the point.
• The additional height coordinate can be a height H above mean sea level,
which is a height with a physical meaning. These(x,y,H) coordinates can be used
to represent the location of objects in a 3D GIS.
 Datum • We wish to transform spatial data from the UTM
(Universal Transverse Mercator) projection to the Dutch
transformations: RD system, and that the data in the UTM system are
related to the European Datum 1950 (ED50).
• In this example the change of map projection should
be combined with a datum transformation step for a
perfect match. This is illustrated in Figure 4.23.
Datum transformation
parameters:

• The coordinates in the local

• If the co-ordinates of these 5
horizontal datum may be
points are not correct–often the
distorted by several tens of
case for points measured on a
metres because of the inherent
local datum system–the
inaccuracies of the
estimated parameters may be
measurements used in the
inaccurate.
triangulation network.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z1PpoolrMK4
Sets of numerical 1. The set provided by the federal mapping
organization of Germany was calculated using
values for the common points distributed throughout
Germany. This set contains all seven parameters
transformation and is valid for all of Germany.
parameters are 2. The set provided by the mapping organization
of Baden-Wurttemberg has been calculated
available from using common points distributed throughout
three the province of BadenWurttemberg. This set
contains all seven parameters and is valid only
organizations: within the borders of that province.
3. The set provided by the National Imagery and
Mapping Agency (NIMA)of the USA has been
calculated using common points distributed
throughout Germany and based on the ITRF.
 The three sets of transformation parameters vary by several tens of metres, for the
aforementioned reasons. These sets of transformation parameters have been used to
transform the ITRF cartesian coordinates of a point in the state of Baden-Wurttemberg.
The ITRF(X,Y,Z) coordinates are: (4,156,939.96 m,671,428.74 m,4,774,958.21 m).
 Recap of lecture

Coordinate Changing Map

System Projection

Map
Transformation
Thank you