The document provides an overview of various number systems including decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal, explaining their bases and digit representations. It details methods for converting numbers between these systems, including examples for decimal to binary, octal, and hexadecimal conversions, as well as binary to decimal conversions. Additionally, it introduces Boolean algebra, functions, and simplification techniques, along with the conversion of truth tables into Boolean expressions.
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TN 111 Lecture 3
The document provides an overview of various number systems including decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal, explaining their bases and digit representations. It details methods for converting numbers between these systems, including examples for decimal to binary, octal, and hexadecimal conversions, as well as binary to decimal conversions. Additionally, it introduces Boolean algebra, functions, and simplification techniques, along with the conversion of truth tables into Boolean expressions.
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NUMBER SYSTEMS
• A number system is a writing system for expressing
numbers; it defines how numbers are represented using symbols (digits). • Different number systems use different bases and symbols to represent values. • There are several number systems which we normally use, such as decimal, binary, octal, hexadecimal etc • The number system having the value of the base as 10 is called a decimal number system, whereas that with a base of 2 is called a binary number system. • Likewise, the number systems having base 8 and 16 are called octal and hexadecimal number systems respectively. NUMBER SYSTEM • With a decimal system we have 10 different digits, which are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,and 9. • Binary system has only 2 different digits—0 and 1. Hence, a binary number cannot have any digit other than 0 or 1 • So to deal with a binary number system is quite easier than a decimal system. Now, in a digital world, we can think in binary nature, e.g,a light can be either off or on. There is no state in between these two. So we generally use the binary system when we deal with the digital world. NUMBER SYSTEM • In an octal number system there are 8 digits—0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. Hence, any octal number cannot have any digit greater than 7. • Similarly, a hexadecimal number system has 16 digits, 0 to 9— and A-F from 10-15, i.e A, B, C, D, E, and F represent decimal 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 respectively. CONVERSION BETWEEN NUMBER SYSTEMS
• It is often required to convert a number in a particular
number system to any other number system, e.g., it may be required to convert a decimal number to binary or octal or hexadecimal. The reverse is also true, i.e., a binary number may be converted into decimal and so on. DECIMAL-TO-BINARY CONVERSION
• Now to convert a number in decimal to a number in
binary we have to divide the decimal number by 2 repeatedly, until the quotient of zero is obtained. • This method of repeated division by 2 is called the ‘double-dabble’ method. The remainders are noted down for each of the division steps. • Then the column of the remainder is read in reverse order i.e., from bottom to top order. • Example 1. Convert 2610 into a binary number. DECIMAL-TO-BINARY CONVERSION DECIMAL-TO-OCTAL CONVERSION
• Similarly, to convert a number in decimal to a number in
octal we have to divide the decimal number by 8 repeatedly, until the quotient of zero is obtained. • This method of repeated division by 8 is called ‘octal- dabble.’ The remainders are noted down for each of the division steps. • Then the column of the remainder is read from bottom to top order, just as in the case of the double-dabble method. • Example 2. Convert 42610 into an octal number DECIMAL-TO-OCTAL CONVERSION DECIMAL-TO-HEXADECIMAL CONVERSION
• The same steps are repeated to convert a number in
decimal to a number in hexadecimal. Only here we have to divide the decimal number by 16 repeatedly, until the quotient of zero is obtained. • This method of repeated division by 16 is called ‘hex- dabble.’ The remainders are noted down for each of the division steps. • Then the column of the remainder is read from bottom to top order as in the two previous cases. • Example 3. Convert 34810 into a hexadecimal number. DECIMAL-TO-HEXADECIMAL CONVERSION
• Example 4. Convert 101102 into a decimal number.
The binary number given is 1 0 1 1 0 Positional weights 43210 • Hence the decimal equivalent number is given as: 1 × 24 + 0 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20 = 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0 = 2210. OCTAL-TO-DECIMAL CONVERSION
• Example 5. Convert 34628 into a decimal number
The octal number given is 3 4 6 2 Positional weights 3210 • Hence the decimal equivalent number is given as: 3 × 83 + 4 × 82 + 6 × 81 + 2 × 80 =1536 + 256 + 48 + 2 = 184210 HEXADECIMAL-TO-DECIMAL CONVERSION
• Example 6. Convert 42AD16 into a decimal number.
The hexadecimal number given is 4 2 A D Positional weights 3210 • Hence the decimal equivalent number is given as: 4 × 163 + 2 × 162 + 10 × 161 + 13 × 160 = 16384 + 512 + 160 + 13 = 1706910 FRACTIONAL CONVERSION • So far we have dealt with the conversion of integer numbers only. Now if the number contains the fractional part we have to deal in a different way when converting the number from a different number system (i.e., binary, octal, or hexadecimal) to a decimal number system or vice versa. FRACTIONAL CONVERSION • Example 7: Convert 1010.0112 into a decimal number. The binary number given is 1 0 1 0. 0 1 1 Positional weights 3 2 1 0 -1-2-3 • Hence the decimal equivalent number is given as: 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20 + 0 × 2–1 + 1 × 2–2 + 1 × 2–3 = 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 0 + 0.25 + 0.125 = 10.37510 FRACTIONAL CONVERSION • Example 8: Convert 362.358 into a decimal number. The octal number given is 3 6 2. 3 5 Positional weights 2 1 0 -1-2 Hence the decimal equivalent number is given as: 3 × 82 + 6 × 81 + 2 × 80 + 3 × 8–1 + 5 × 8–2 = 192 + 48 + 2 + 0.375 + 0.078125 = 242.45312510 FRACTIONAL CONVERSION • Example 9: Convert 42A.1116 into a decimal number. The hexadecimal number given is 4 2 A. 1 1 Positional weights 2 1 0 -1-2 Hence the decimal equivalent number is given as: 4 × 162 + 2 × 161 + 10 × 160 + 1 × 16–1 + 1 × 16–2 = 1024 + 32 + 10 + 0.0625 + 0.00390625 = 1066.0664062510 Example 10: Convert 25.62510 , 10.310 and 10.37510 into a binary number. FRACTIONAL CONVERSION FRACTIONAL CONVERSION • Example 11: Convert 34.52510 into an octal number. FRACTIONAL CONVERSION FRACTIONAL CONVERSION • Example 12: Convert 92.8510 into a hexadecimal number. FRACTIONAL CONVERSION CONVERSION FROM A BINARY TO OCTAL NUMBER AND VICE VERSA • We know that the maximum digit in an octal number system is 7, which can be represented as 1112 in a binary system. • Hence, starting from the LSB, we group three digits at a time and replace them by the decimal equivalent of those groups and we get the final octal number. • Example 7. Convert 1011010102 into an equivalent octal number. CONVERSION FROM A BINARY TO OCTAL NUMBER AND VICE VERSA • The binary number given is 101101010 • Starting with LSB and grouping 3 bits 101 101 010 • Octal equivalent 5 5 2 • Hence, the octal equivalent number is (552)8 Example 8. Convert 10111102 into an equivalent octal number. The binary number given is 1011110 • Starting with LSB and grouping 3 bits 001 011 110 • Octal equivalent 1 3 6 • Hence, the octal equivalent number is (136)8 CONVERSION FROM A BINARY TO OCTAL NUMBER AND VICE VERSA • Example 9. Convert 2358 into an equivalent binary number. The octal number given is 2 3 5 3-bit binary equivalent 010 011 101 • Hence the binary number is (010011101)2 • Example 10. Convert 47.3218 into an equivalent binary number. The octal number given is 4 7 3 2 1 3-bit binary equivalent 100 111 011 010 001 CONVERSION FROM A BINARY TO OCTAL NUMBER AND VICE VERSA • Hence the binary number is (100111.011010001)2 • Example 11. Convert 1101.01112 into an equivalent octal number. The binary number given is 1101.0111 Grouping 3 bits 001 101. 011 100 Octal equivalent: 1 5 3 4 Hence the octal number is (15.34)8 CONVERSION FROM A BINARY TO HEXA DECIMAL NUMBER AND VICE VERSA • The maximum digit in a hexadecimal system is 15, which can be represented by 11112 in a binary system. Hence, starting from the LSB, we group four digits at a time and replace them with the hexadecimal equivalent of those groups and we get the final hexadecimal number. • Example 12. Convert 110101102 into an equivalent hexadecimal number. The binary number given is 11010110 CONVERSION FROM A BINARY TO HEXA DECIMAL NUMBER AND VICE VERSA Starting with LSB and grouping 4 bits 1101 0110 Hexadecimal equivalent D 6 Hence, the hexadecimal equivalent number is (D6)16 • Example 13. Convert 1100111102 into an equivalent hexadecimal number. The binary number given is 110011110 Starting with LSB and grouping 4 bits 0001 1001 1110 Hexadecimal equivalent 1 9 E Hence the hexadecimal equivalent number is (19E)16 CONVERSION FROM A BINARY TO HEXA DECIMAL NUMBER AND VICE VERSA • Example 14. Convert 111011.0112 into an equivalent hexadecimal number. The binary number given is 111011.011 Grouping 4 bits 0011 1011. 0110 Hexadecimal equivalent 3 B 6 Hence the hexadecimal equivalent number is (3B.6)16 TRUTH TABLE • Boolean functions can also be represented by truth tables. • A truth table is the tabular form of the values of a Boolean function according to all possible values of its variables. • For an “n” number of variables, 2n combinations of 1s and 0s are listed and one column represents function values according to the different combinations. • For example, for three variables the Boolean function F = AB + C,the truth table can be written as below DIGITAL LOGIC GATES • Boolean functions are expressed in terms of AND, OR, and NOT operations, it is easier to implement the Boolean functions with these basic types of gates. • However, for all practical purposes, it is possible to construct other types of logic gates • The following are types of digital logic gates BOOLEAN ALGEBRA • Boolean algebra, may be defined with a set of elements, a set of operators(AND,OR and NOT), and a number of assumptions and postulates. BASIC PROPERTIES AND THEOREMS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS • Binary variables have two values, either 0 or 1. A Boolean function is an expression formed with binary variables and two binary operators AND and OR. • The value of a boolean function may be 0 or 1, depending on the values of variables present in the Boolean function or expression. BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS • For example, if a Boolean function is expressed algebraically as F = AB′C then the value of F will be 1, when A = 1, B = 0, and C = 1. For other values of A, B, C the value of F is 0. • A Boolean function from an algebraic expression can be realized to a logic diagram composed of logic gates BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS SIMPLIFICATION OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS • There are several methods to minimize the Boolean function; by using boolean algebra, K-map and tabular method. • simplification or minimization of complex algebraic expressions will be shown with the help of theorems of Boolean algebra SIMPLIFICATION OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS USING BOOLEAN ALGEBRA ASSIGNMENT • Simplify the following boolean functions by using boolean algebra 1. F= XYZ + XY‘ Z+ XYZ’ 2. F= AB +(AC)’ + AB’C(AB + C) 3. F= ((XY’ + XYZ)’ + X( Y + XY’ ))’ 4. F= A+AB+AB’C 5. F= AB’C(BD+CDE)+AC’ 6. F= (A”+B)C+ABC 7. F= X’Y+YZ’+YZ+XY’Z’ 8. F=(P+Q)(P+R) 9. F=X’Y’Z+YZ+XZ 10. F=(A+B’+C’)(A+B’+C)(A+B+C’) CONVERTING TRUTH TABLE INTO BOOLEAN EXPRESSION CONVERTING TRUTH TABLE INTO BOOLEAN EXPRESSION • Logical functions are generally expressed in terms of different combinations of logical variables with their true forms as well as the complement forms. • Binary logic values obtained by the logical functions and logic variables are in binary form. • An arbitrary logic function can be expressed in the following forms. (i) Sum of the Products (SOP) (ii) Product of the Sums (POS) CONVERTING TRUTH TABLE INTO BOOLEAN EXPRESSION • Product Term: In Boolean algebra, the logical product of several variables on which a function depends is considered to be a product term. • In other words, the AND function is referred to as a product term or standard product. • The variables in a product term can be either in true form or in complemented form. For example, ABC′ is a product term. CONVERTING TRUTH TABLE INTO BOOLEAN EXPRESSION • Sum Term: An OR function is referred to as a sum term. The logical sum of several variables on which a function depends is considered to be a sum term. Variables in a sum term can also be either in true form or in complemented form. For example, A + B + C′ is a sum term. • Sum of Products (SOP): The logical sum of two or more logical product terms is referred to as a sum of products expression. It is basically an OR operation on AND operated variables. CONVERTING TRUTH TABLE INTO BOOLEAN EXPRESSION • For example, Y = AB + BC + AC or Y = A′B + BC + AC′ are sum of products expressions. • Product of Sums (POS): Similarly, the logical product of two or more logical sum terms is called a product of sums expression. • It is an AND operation on OR operated variables. • For example, Y = (A + B + C)(A + B′ + C)(A + B + C′) or Y = (A + B + C)(A′ + B′ + C′) are product of sums expressions. • Find the boolean function of output Y using both SOP and POS CONVERTING TRUTH TABLE INTO BOOLEAN EXPRESSION • The final sum of products expression (SOP) for the output Y is derived by summing or performing an OR operation of the four product terms as shown below. Y = A′BC′ + AB′C′ + AB′C + ABC′ • The product of sums expression (POS) for the output Y is derived by performing an AND operation of the four sum terms as shown below. Y = (A + B + C) (A + B + C′) (A + B′ + C′) (A′ + B′ + C ′) LOGIC GATES LOGIC GATES LOGIC GATES LOGIC GATES LOGIC GATES
Implementation of Robot Systems An Introduction To Robotics Automation and Successful Systems Integration in Manufacturing 1st Edition by MIKE WILSON 9780124047495 0124047491 Download