CHAPTER TWO

THEORY OF ERRORS IN
MEASUREMENT
Surveying is concerned with measurements of quantity
whose exact or true value may not determined.
 It can be stated unconditionally that:
 No measurement is exact,
 Every measurement contains errors,
 The true value of a measurement is never known, and
thus
 The exact sizes of the errors present are always unknown.
****The true value of a quantity is, a value which is
absolutely free from all types of errors*****

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 ERROR and
MISTAKE
An Error is the difference, after blunders have
been eliminated, between a measured or
calculated value of a quantity and the true
value of that quantity.

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A blunder, also called a mistake, is an unpredictable
human mistake.
 Although a small blunder may remain undetected
and have the same effect as an error, it is not an
error.
 Mistakes occur in measurements due to
carelessness, inattention, fatigue, miss-
communication, disability, inexperience or poor
judgment of the surveyor.
 For example, recording 79.36 or 73.69 instead of
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73.96
 Mistakes are detected and eliminated by using proper
procedures, such as:
 Checking each recorded and calculated value
 Making independent and redundant measure check
observations and measurements
 Making redundant measurements that allow closure
computation of sections of the entire survey
 Calculating repeatedly

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 Sources of Errors
o Errors are from three sources, which are classified as
instrumental, natural, and personal:
1) Instrumental errors: are caused by imperfections in
instrument construction or adjustment.
 Examples of instrument error are:
 Imperfect linear or angular scales
 Misalignment of various part of the instrument
 Optical distortions causing “what you see is not
exactly what you are supposed to see”

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 For example, the divisions on a theodolite or total
station instrument may not be spaced uniformly.
 Another example, if the tape used in measuring
the distance is actually 29.95m long where as the
nominal length is 30m, the instrumental error
occurs because of the imperfect tape.

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 Most instrumental errors are eliminated by using proper
procedures, such as
 Observing angles in direct and reverse modes,
 Balancing foresights and back sights and repeating
measurements.
 Since not all instrument errors can be eliminated by
procedures, instruments must be periodically checked,
tested and adjusted (or calibrated.)
 Instruments must be on a maintenance schedule to
prevent inaccurate measurements.
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2) Natural errors: are caused by changes in natural
phenomena, such as temperatures, winds, humidity,
dust, and magnetic field.
 Examples of natural errors are:
 A steel tape whose length varies with changes in
temperature.
 Sun spots activity and its impact on the ionosphere,
hence on GPS surveying.
o For example if a tape has been calibrated at 20ºc, but
the field temperature is 30ºc there will be a natural
error due to temperature variation. 8
3) Personal error: occur due to human limitations, such
as sense of sight and touch.
 Personal errors can be characterized as either
systematic or random.
 Personal systematic errors are caused by an observer
tendency to react the same way under the same
conditions (inconsistency).
o When there is no such tendency, the personal errors are
considered to be random.
 An example of a personal error is an error in the
measured value of a horizontal angle, caused by the
inability to hold a range pole perfectly in the direction of
the plumb line. 9
Types of errors
In surveying, errors can be broadly classified into the
following two types:
1. Systematic or cumulative errors
2. Accidental or random errors

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1. Systematic /cumulative error
1. Nature: Systematic errors are consistent or predictable
errors that occur in the same direction and magnitude for
each measurement.
2. Cause: Systematic errors can arise from flaws or biases
in the measurement instrument and calibration issues,
observational or environmental factors.
3. Impact on measurements: Systematic errors lead to
measurements that are consistently higher or lower than
the true value, resulting in a systematic bias.
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4. Detection and correction: Systematic errors can
often be detected by analyzing and comparing multiple
measurements, and they may be corrected by
calibrating or adjusting the measurement instrument.
5. Examples: Zero errors in instruments, misaligned
scales, temperature variations affecting the
measurement equipment.

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2. Random/accidental errors

1. Nature: Random errors are unpredictable errors that

occur due to various sources such as human error,
fluctuations in environmental conditions, or limitations of
the measurement instrument.

2. Cause: Random errors are caused by uncontrollable

factors that result in slight variations in measured values.

3. Impact on measurements: Random errors lead to

variations in measured values around the true value, but
they do not exhibit a consistent pattern or bias.
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4. Detection and correction: Random errors cannot be
eliminated entirely but can be reduced by taking multiple
measurements and applying statistical techniques to
identify and mitigate their effects.
5. Examples: Slight variations in reading instruments,
human error in recording measurements, inherent
limitations in the measurement precision.

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 Accidental errors occur due to:

- imperfection in the instruments

- human limitation or
- Change in atmospheric conditions
 Examples might include fluctuations in room
temperature, fluctuations in line voltage,
mechanical vibrations, etc.

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 In summary, systematic errors are consistent and
predictable, with a known direction and magnitude,
while random errors are unpredictable and result in
variations around the true value.
 Detecting and correcting systematic errors is possible
through calibration and adjustment, whereas random
errors can only be reduced through statistical methods
and multiple measurements.

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Nature of Error
 Positive and negative errors have equal chance to
occur.
 Small errors have most probability to occur.
 Large errors has small chance to occur.

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Accuracy and Precision
A. Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in
measurements.
 It denotes how close a given measurement is to the true
value of the quantity.
 Accuracy is the degree of conformity of a given
measurement with a standard value.
B. Precision is the degree of refinement with which a given
quantity is measured.
 In other words, it is the closeness of one measurement to
another.

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 If a quantity is measured several times and the values
obtained are very close to each other, the precision is said
to be high.
 Precision is the extent to which a given set of
measurements agree with their mean.
 The goal of any survey should be to produce accurate and
precise observations.
 Often measurements with greater accuracy and precision
requirements employ multiple observations to minimize
procedural errors.
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 END OF THE CHAPTER

THANK
YOU! 21