INTRODUCTION TO

SPATIAL DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

PREPARED BY
PALLAGANI RAMU
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
What is a SDBMS ?
 A spatial database management system (DBMS) is a database that
stores, analyzes, and manipulates spatial data, like the location of
an object in space or a point on Earth. Spatial DBMSs are used in
remote sensing and other applications because they can handle
large amounts of data and perform spatial transactions:
 Spatial data types: Spatial DBMSs have dedicated data types to
store complex spatial data.
 Spatial indices: Spatial DBMSs use spatial indices to optimize
access to spatial data sets.
 Geographic information systems (GIS): GIS is a technology that
can analyze and visualize geographical data. GIS can be used as
the front-end for a spatial DBMS.
SDBMS
SDBMS
Data Storage

 Spatial database management system (SDBMS) is a

database management system specifically designed for
storing, manipulating, and retrieving spatial data.
Spatial data refers to data that is associated with a
location, such as geographical data or map data.
 In an SDBMS, data is stored in a spatial database

which is a type of database that has been specifically

optimized to store and manage spatial data. The data
stored in an SDBMS includes points, lines, polylines,
polygon features, and other geographical features such
as roads, buildings, and rivers.
Database Structure Models

 Object-Relational Model: This model uses a combination of both the relational and object-
oriented models to store and manage spatial data. It enables the storage of complex data
structures such as polygon and lines in the same database with other traditional data types.
 Geodetic Model: This model uses a geographic coordinate system to represent spatial data. It
stores data as points, lines, and polygons in terms of longitude and latitude values. The Geodetic
Model is commonly used in Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
 Raster Model: This model represents spatial data as a grid of cells or pixels. Each cell in the
grid contains a value that represents a feature in the real world. The Raster Model is commonly
used in remote sensing applications.
 Network Model: This model represents spatial data as a network of interconnected nodes and
edges. It is used to represent transportation networks, water networks, and other complex
systems that have interconnections.
 Entity-Relationship Model: This model is based on the relational database model and is used
to represent relationships between entities. It is commonly used to represent spatial data as
relationships between objects and their attributes.
 Object-Oriented Model: This model uses object-oriented programming concepts to store and
manage spatial data. Objects are created as classes, and each object represents a feature in the
real world. The Object-Oriented Model is commonly used in 3D modelling applications.
Database Management system

 A spatial database management system (SDBMS) is a specialized type of database

management system that is designed to store, manage, and retrieve spatial data, or data that
is related to location and geography. An SDBMS typically uses a geographic
information system (GIS) to store data in a spatial format and to support spatial analysis
and visualization.
 Some of the key components of an SDBMS include:
 Spatial data storage: An SDBMS stores geographic and spatial data in a spatial format
that can be easily managed, accessed, and analysed.
 Spatial data indexing: An SDBMS includes tools for indexing spatial data, allowing for
fast retrieval of spatial data based on geographic location and other criteria.
 Spatial data analysis: An SDBMS includes tools for spatial data analysis, including the
ability to perform spatial queries, create maps, and perform spatial analysis on the data.
 Spatial data visualization: An SDBMS includes tools for spatial data visualization,
allowing users to view and interact with the data in a visual format.
 Spatial data management: An SDBMS includes tools for managing spatial data, including
data backup, data recovery, and data security.
 Some popular SDBMS include Oracle Spatial, PostGIS, and SQL Server Spatial.
Entity-Relation Model

 An Entity Relationship Model (ER Diagram)

pictorially explains the relationship between entities to
be stored in a database. Fundamentally, the ER
Diagram is a structural design of the database. It acts as
a framework created with specialized symbols for the
purpose of defining the relationship between the
database entities. ER diagram is created based on three
principal components: entities, attributes, and
relationships.
What is an ER Diagram?

 An Entity Relationship Diagram (ER Diagram)

pictorially explains the relationship between entities to
be stored in a database. Fundamentally, the ER
Diagram is a structural design of the database. It acts as
a framework created with specialized symbols for the
purpose of defining the relationship between the
database entities. ER diagram is created based on three
principal components: entities, attributes, and
relationships.
Components of ER Diagram

 You base an ER Diagram on three basic concepts:

 Entities
◦ Weak Entity
 Attributes
◦ Key Attribute
◦ Composite Attribute
◦ Multivalued Attribute
◦ Derived Attribute
 Relationships
◦ One-to-One Relationships
◦ One-to-Many Relationships
◦ Many-to-One Relationships
◦ Many-to-Many Relationships
Entities

 An entity can be either a living or non-living

component.
 It showcases an entity as a rectangle in an ER diagram.
 For example, in a student study course, both the student

and the course are entities.

Normalization

 Normalization in spatial database management systems refers to

the process of organizing data in a database into multiple tables to
reduce data redundancy and improve data integrity. The goal is to
eliminate data anomalies that can occur when data is duplicated or
inconsistent.
 In a spatial database, the normalization process takes into account
the spatial nature of the data, which requires additional
consideration for the relationships between data entities. For
example, a spatial database might contain tables for points, lines,
and polygon features, each with their own attributes.
Normalization helps to ensure that these features are stored in
separate tables and that the relationships between them are
managed properly.
DATA MODELS
&
DATA
STRUCTURES
Introduction
 In Geographic Information Systems (GIS), data models
are conceptual representations of data structures, which
are made up of data objects, relationships between
them, and rules for operating on them. Data models in
GIS are used to define what's in the operational GIS
and its supporting system.
How do we describe geographical features?
• By recognizing two types of data: – Spatial data which
describes location (where) – Attribute data which specifies
characteristics at that location (what, how much, and when)
How do we represent these digitally in a GIS?
• bygrouping into layers based on similar characteristics (e.g
hydrography, elevation, water lines, sewer lines, grocery
sales) and using either: –
Vector Data Model (coverage in ARC/INFO, shapefile in
ArcView) –
Raster Data Model (GRID or Image in ARC/INFO & ArcView)
• by selecting appropriate data properties for each layer with respect
to: – projection, scale, accuracy, and resolution
The Data Model
 Data model is a conceptual description (mental model)
of how spatial data are organized for use by the GIS.
 The data model represents a set of guidelines to convert

the real world (called entity) to the digitally and

logically represented spatial objects consisting of the
attributes and geometry.
 The attributes are managed by thematic or semantic

structure while the geometry is represented by

geometric-topological structure.
The Data Model
There are two major types of geometric data model ; vector and
raster model.
a. Vector Model
Vector model uses discrete points, lines and/or areas
corresponding to discrete objects with name or code number of
attributes.
b. Raster Model
Raster model uses regularly spaced grid cells in specfic sequence.
An element of the grid cell is called a pixel (picture cell). The
conventional sequence is row by row from the left to the right and
then line by line from the top to bottom. Every location is given
in two dimensional image coordinates ; pixel number and line
number, which contains a single value of attributes.
Concept of Real World
Vector and Raster

Raster Representation
Vector Representation
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 R T
1 R T
2 H R point
3 R line
4 R R
5 R
6 R T T H
7 R T T polygon
8 R
9 R
Raster Data Model
 The term raster implies a regularly spaced grid . Raster data consists of
rows and columns of cells (or pixels). In this format a single value is
stored against each cell. Raster data can represent a multiplicity of things
including:

• Visual images (that is colour and/or hue)

• Discrete value, such as land use
• Continuous value, such as rainfall
• Null values if no data is available.
Cell Size of Raster Data
 The level of detail represented by a raster is often
dependent on the cell (pixel) size or spatial resolution
of the raster. The cell must be small enough to capture
the required detail but large enough so computer
storage and analysis can be performed efficiently.
 Smaller cell size Larger cell size

 Higher resolution  Lower resolution

 Higher feature spatial  Lower feature spatial

accuracy. accuracy
 Slower display  Faster display
 Slower processing  Faster processing
 Large file size  Smaller file size
Advantages of Raster
 It is a simple data structure.
 It has the ability to represent continuous surfaces and

perform surface analysis.

 The ability to uniformly store points, lines, polygons

and surfaces.
 The ability to perform fast overlays with complex

datasets.
Disadvantages of Raster
 There can be spatial inaccuracies due to limits imposed
by raster dataset cell dimension.
 Raster datasets are potentially very large. Resolution

increases as the size of cells decreases. Accordingly

cost and disk space used also increases.
 There is also a loss of precision that accompanies

restructuring data to a regularly spaced raster cell

boundary.
Vector Data Model
 Vectors are graphical objects
that have geometrical
primitives such as points,
lines and polygons to
represent geographical entities
in the computer graphics.
 A vector refers to a
geometrical space which has a
precise direction, length and
shape
 Points, Lines and Polygons
can be defined by the
coordinate geometry.
 A vector spatial data model uses two-dimensional
Cartesian (x, y) coordinate system to store the shape of
a spatial entity.
 In vector world the point is the
basic building block from which
all spatial entities are
constructed.
 The simplest spatial entity, the

point, is represented by a single

(x, y) coordinate pair.
 Line and area entities are

constructed by connecting a
series of points into chains and
polygons.
 Point
 A point is a 0 dimensional
object and has only the
property of location (x,y)

 Points can be used to

Model features such as a
well, building, power pole,
sample location etc.
 Other names for a point are

vertex, node, 0-cell.

 Line
 A line is a one-dimensional object
that has the property of length
 Lines can be used to represent

road, streams, faults, dikes,

marker beds, boundary, contacts
etc.
 Lines are also called an edge,

link, chain, arc, 1-cell

 Connected multiple lines are

called polylines.
 Polygon
 Polygon features are made of
one or more lines that
encloses an area.
 A polygon is a two-
dimensional object with
properties of area and
perimeter represented by a
closed sequence of lines.
 A polygon can represent a
city, geologic formation,
dike, lake, river, etc.
Advantages of Vector
• Requires less disk storage space.

• Efficient for topological relationship

• Graphical output more closely resembles hand-drawn maps.

• Easy to edit

• Accurate map output

• Efficient projection transformation

Disadvantages of Vector
• Complex data structure.

• Less compatibility with remotely sensed data.

• Expensive software and hardware.

• Not appropriate to represent continuous data

• Overlaying multiple vector are often time consuming.

 Difference between Raster and
Vector
Raster Vector
 It is a simple data structure.  More complex data structure.
 Overlay operations are easily  Overlay operations are more
and efficiently implemented. difficult to implement.
 High spatial variability is  The representation of high
efficiently represented in a spatial variability is
raster format. inefficient.
 The raster format is more or  Manipulation and
less required for efficient enhancement of digital
manipulation and enhancement images cannot be effectively
of digital images. done in the vector domain.
 The raster data structure is  Vector provides a more
less compact. compact data structure.
 Topological relationships are  Provides efficient encoding
more difficult to represent. of topology.
 The output of graphics is  The vector data model is
less aesthetically pleasing better suited to supporting
because boundaries tend to graphics that closely
have a blocky appearance approximate hand-drawn
rather than the smooth lines maps.
of hand drawn maps. This
can be overcome by using
very large number of cells,
but it may result in
unacceptably large files.
•An attribute data model in GIS is a separate data model that stores and
manages the non-spatial characteristics of features in a GIS.
•These characteristics are called attributes, items, or variables.
Attributes are used to describe the properties of spatial features, such as
points, lines, or polygons, that represent real-world phenomena on a map.
• Examples of attributes include:
color, depth, weight, owner, component vegetation type, and landuse.
•Attribute data is often presented in tables, with attributes arranged in
rows and columns.
•The most common data models for storing and managing attribute data
are: Tabular, Hierarchical, Network, Relational, and Object Oriented.
The Geodatabase: Modeling and Managing Spatial Data

 A geodatabase (GDB) is a data storage and

management framework for geographic information
systems (GIS) that stores spatial and attribute data in a
central location. It's the primary data model for
ArcGIS, and is used for editing and data management.
Here are some key features of a geodatabase:
•Data types
A geodatabase can store many types of GIS data, including attribute
data, geographic features, satellite and aerial images, CAD data,
surface modeling, GPS coordinates, and survey measurements.
•Data structure
A geodatabase uses a series of tables to store feature classes and
attributes. Tables are made up of columns and rows, and can store
both descriptive and spatial attributes.
•Access
A geodatabase can be accessed through ArcGIS or a database
management system using SQL.
•Scalability
A geodatabase can be scaled to support single-user or multiuser
access and editing.
•Data management
A geodatabase provides a formal model for storing and working with
data. It also includes tools for managing spatial integrity and working
with spatial relationships.
 METADATA
 Metadata in GIS is information about a Geographic
Information System (GIS) dataset that describes its
characteristics, including:
 Who: Who created the data
 What: What the data is about
 When: When the data was created or last updated
 Where: Where the data is located
 How: How the data was created or processed
 Why: Why the data was created
 Quality: The quality of the data
 Source: The source of the data
Metadata is usually presented as an XML document. It can
describe:
GIS files, Imagery, Geospatial databases, Data catalogs,
Mapping applications, Data models, and Related websites.

Metadata is important because it:

•Ensures data transparency
•Helps users assess the reliability, accuracy, and limitations of
the data
•Helps users efficiently search for relevant data
•Helps users assess if the data is suitable for specific
applications
•Helps users determine if the data aligns with their needs
•Facilitates the integration of different datasets
•Promotes interoperability and data sharing