STEAM TURBINES

by:RAMONITO G. ALEJANDRO,PME,MBA
Steam turbine is one of the most important prime
mover for generating electricity. This falls under
the category of power producing turbo-machines.
In the turbine, the energy level of the working
fluid goes on decreasing along the flow stream.
Single unit of steam turbine can develop power
ranging from 1 mW to 1000 mW. In general, 1
mW, 2.5 mW, 5 mW, 10 mW, 30 mW, 120 mW,
210 mW, 250 mW, 350 mW, 500 mW, 660 mW,
1000 mW are in common use.
The thermal efficiency of modern steam power
The purpose of turbine technology is to extract
the maximum quantity of energy from the
working fluid, to convert it into useful work with
maximum efficiency, by means of a plant having
maximum reliability, minimum cost, minimum
supervision and minimum starting time.
This chapter deals with the types and working of
various types of steam turbine. The construction
details are given in chapter 15.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF STEAM TURBINE

The principle of operation of steam turbine is entirely different

from the steam engine. In reciprocating steam engine, the
pressure energy of steam is used to overcome external resistance
and the dynamic action of steam is negligibly small. But the
steam turbine depends completely upon the dynamic action of the
steam.
According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion, the force is
proportional to the rate of change of momentum (mass ×
velocity).
If the rate of change of momentum is caused in the steam by allowing a high
velocity jet of steam to pass over curved blade, the steam will impart a force to
the blade. If the blade is free, it will move off (rotate) in the direction of force. In
other words, the motive power in a steam turbine is obtained by the rate of
change in moment of momentum of a high velocity jet of steam impinging on a
curved blade which is free to rotate. The steam from the boiler is expanded in a
passage or nozzle where due to fall in pressure of steam, thermal energy of
steam is converted into kinetic energy of steam, resulting in the emission of a
high velocity jet of steam which, Principle of working impinges on the moving
vanes or blades of turbine (Fig. 6.1).
Attached on a rotor which is mounted on a shaft
supported on bearings, and here steam undergoes a
change in direction of motion due to curvature of blades
which gives rise to a change in momentum and therefore
a force. This constitutes the driving force of the turbine.
This arrangement is shown.

It should be realized that the blade obtains no motive

force from the static pressure of the steam or from any
impact of the jet, because the blade in designed such that
the steam jet will glide on and off the blade
without any tendency to strike it.
As shown in Fig. 6.2, when the blade is locked the jet enters and leaves with equal
velocity, and thus develops maximum force if we neglect friction in the blades. Since
the blade velocity is zero, no mechanical work is done. As the blade is allowed to
speed up, the leaving velocity of jet from the blade reduces, which reduces the force.
Due to blade velocity the work will be done and maximum work is done when the
blade speed is just half of the steam speed. In this case, the steam velocity from the
blade is near about zero i.e. it is trail of inert steam since all the kinetic energy of
steam is converted into work.
The force and work done become zero when the blade speed is equal to the steam
speed. From the above discussion, it follows that a steam turbine should have a row
of nozzles, a row of moving blades fixed to the rotor, and the casing (cylinder). A
row of nozzles and a raw of moving blades constitutes a stage of turbine.
CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINE
Steam turbine may be classified as follows: -
(A) On the Basis of Principle of Operation :
1.Impulse turbine
(a) Simple, (b) Velocity stage,
(c) Pressure stage,
(d) combination of (b) and (c)

2. Impulse-reaction turbine
(a) 50% (Parson’s) reaction,
(b) Combination of impulse and reaction.
(i) Impulse Turbine: If the flow of steam through the nozzles and
(

moving blades of a turbine takes place in such a manner that the

steam is expanded only in nozzles and pressure at the outlet sides
of the blades is equal to that at inlet side; such a turbine is termed
as impulse turbine because it works on the principle of impulse.

In other words, in impulse turbine, the drop in pressure of steam

takes place only in nozzles and not in moving blades. This is
obtained by making the blade passage of constant cross- section
area
As a general statement it may be stated
that energy transformation takes place only
in nozzles and moving blades (rotor) only
cause energy transfer.

Since the rotor blade passages do not cause

any acceleration of fluid, hence chances of
flow separation are greater which results in
lower stage efficiency.
 Impulse-Reaction Turbine:
In this turbine, the drop in pressure of steam takes place in
fixed (nozzles) as well as moving blades. The pressure drop
suffered by steam while passing through the moving blades
causes a further generation of kinetic energy within the moving
blades, giving rise to reaction and adds to the propelling force
which is applied through the rotor to the turbine shaft. Since
this turbine works on the principle of impulse and reaction
both, so it is called impulse-reaction turbine.
This is achieved by making the blade passage of varying cross-
sectional area (converging type).
In general, it may be stated that energy
transformation occurs in both fixed and
moving blades.
The rotor blades cause both energy transfer
and transformation. Since there is an
acceleration of flow
in moving blade passage hence chances of
separation of flow is less which results in
higher stage efficiency.
B) On the basis of “Direction of Flow’’ :
1.Axial flow turbine,
2.Radial flow turbine,
3.Tangential flow turbine.

Axial Flow Turbine.

In axial flow turbine, the steam flows along the axis of the shaft.
It is the most suitable turbine for large turbo-generators and that
is why it is used in all modem steam power plants.
Radial Flow Turbine.
In this turbine, the steam flows in the radial direction. It incorporates two shafts
end to end, each driving a separate generator. A disc is fixed to each shaft. Rings
of 50% reaction radial-flow bladings are fixed to each disk. The two sets of
bladings rotate counter to each other. In this way, a relative speed of twice the
running speed is achieved and every blade row is made to work. The final stages
may be of axial flow design in order to achieve a larger area of flow. Since this
type of turbine can be warmed and started quickly, so it is very suitable for use at
times of peak load.
Though this type of turbine is very successful in the smaller
sizes but formidable design difficulties have hindered the
development of large turbines of this type.

In Sweden, however, composite radial/axial flow turbines have

been built of outputs upto 275 MW. Sometimes, this type of
turbine is also known as Liungstrom turbine after the name of
its inventor B and F. Liungstrom of Sweden (Fig. 6.3).
Tangential Flow Turbine.
In this type, the steam flows in the tangential direction. This
turbine is very robust but not particularly efficient machine,
sometimes used for driving power station auxiliaries. In this
turbine, nozzle directs steam tangentially into buckets milled in
the periphery of a single wheel, and on exit the steam turns
through a reversing chamber, reentering bucket further round the
periphery.
This process is repeatedseveral times, the steam flowing a helical
path. Several nozzles with reversing chambers may be
usedaround the wheel periphery.
On the Basis of Means of Heat Supply:

1.Single pressure turbine,

2.Mixed or dual pressure turbine
3.Reheated turbine.
(a) Single (b) Double
Single Pressure Turbine
In this type of turbine, there is single source of steam supply.

Mixed or Dual Pressure Turbine :

This type of turbines, use two sources of steam, at different pressures. The
dual pressure turbine is found in nuclear power stations where it uses both
sources continuously. The mixed pressure turbine is found in industrial plants
(e.g., rolling mill, colliery, etc.) where there are two supplies of steam and use
of one supply is more economical than the other; for example, the economical
steam may be the exhaust steam from engine which can be utilised in the L. P.
stages of steam turbine.
Dual pressure system is also used in combined cycle.
Reheated Turbine :

During its passage through the turbine steam may be taken out to
be reheated in a reheater incorporated in the boiler and returned
at higher tempera-ture to be expanded in (Fig. 6.6).

This is done to avoid erosion and corrosion problems in the

bladings and to improve the power output and efficiency. The
reheating may be single or double or triple.
(D) On the Basis of Means of Heat Rejection :
1.Pass-out or extraction turbine, 2;Regenerative turbine,
3.Condensing turbine, 4.Non_condensing turbine,
5.Back pressure or topping turbine.
Pass-out Turbine.
In this turbine, (Fig. 6.4), a considerable proportion of the steam is extracted
from some suitable point in the turbine where the pressure is sufficient for use
in process heating; the remainder continuing through the turbine. The latter is
controlled by separate valve-gear to meet thedifference between the pass-out
steam and electrical load requirements.
This type of turbine is suitablewhere there is dual demand of steam-one for
power and the other for industrial heating, for examplesugar industries.
Double pass-out turbines are sometimes used.
Regenerative Turbine.
This turbine incorporates a number of extraction branches, through which
small proportions of the steam are continuously extracted for the purpose of
heating the boiler feed water in a feed heater in order to increase the thermal
efficiency of the plant. Now a days, all steam power plants are equipped with
reheating and regenerative arrangement.

Condensing Turbine.
In this turbine, the exhaust steam is condensed in a condenser and the
condensate is used as feed water in the boiler. By this way the condensing
turbine allows the steam to expand to the lowest possible pressure before
being condensed. All steam power plants use this type of turbine.
Non-Condensing Turbine. When the exhaust steam coming out from the
turbine is not condensed but exhausted in the atmosphere is called non-
condensing turbine. The exhaust steam is not recovered for feed water in
the boiler.
Back Pressure or Topping Turbine.
This type of turbine rejects the steam after expansion to the lowest suitable
possible pressure at which it is used for heating purpose. Thus back
pressure turbine supplies power as well as heat energy.The back pressure
turbine generally used in sugar industries provides low pressure steam
forheating apparatus, where as a topping turbine exhausts into a turbine
designed for lower steam conditions.
( E) On the Basis of Number of Cylinder:

Turbine may be classified as

1.Single cylinder and
2,Multi-cylinder.
Single Cylinder.
When all stages of turbine are housed in one casing, then it is
called single cylinder. Such a single cylinder turbine uses one
shaft.
Multi-Cylinder. In large output turbine, the number of the stages
needed becomes so high that additional bearings are required to
support the shaft. Under this circumstances, multi-cylinders are
used
F) On the Basis of Arrangement of Cylinder Based on
(

General Flow of Steam.

1.Single flow,
2.Double flow, and
3.Reversed flow

Single Flow. In a single flow turbines, the steam enters at one

end, flows once [Fig. 6.5(a)] through the bladings in a direction
approximately parallel to this axis, emerges at the other end.
High pressurecylinder uses single flow. This is also common in
small turbines.
Double Flow.

In this type of turbines, the steam enters at the centre and divides, the
two portions passing axially away from other through separate sets of
blading on the same rotor Fig. 6.5(b).

The low pressure cylinder normally uses double flow). This type of
unit is completely balanced against the end thrust and gives large area
of flow through two sets of bladings. This also helps in reducing the
blade height as mass flow rate becomes half as compared to single
flow for the same conditions.
Reversed Flow.

Reversed flow arrangement is sometimes used in h.p,

cylinder where higher temperature steam is used on the
larger sets in order to minimise differential expansion
i.e. unequal expansion of rotor and casing. The use of
single, double and reversed flow is shown in the layout
Fig. 6.5(c).
(G) On the Basis of Number of Shaft
1.Tandem compound,
2.Cross compound
(i) Tandem Compound.
Most multi-cylinder turbines drive a single shaft and single generator
Such turbines are termed as tandem compound turbines.

(ii) Cross Compound.

In this type, two shafts are used driving separate generator. The may be one
of turbine house arrangement, limited generator size, or a desire to run
shafting at half speed. The latter choice is sometimes preferred so that for
the same centrifugal stress, longer blades may be used, giving a larger
leaving area, a smaller velocity and hence a small leaving loss.
( H) On the Basis of Rotational Speed

Constant speed turbines

Variable speed turbines
Constant Speed Turbines.

Requirements of rotational speed are extremely rigid in turbines which

are directly connected to electric generators as these must be a-c unit
except in the smallest sizes and must therefore run at speeds
corresponding to the standard number of cycles per second and governed
by the following equation :

N = 120 × Number of cycles per second = 120 f/p

Number of poles
The minimum number of poles, in a generator is two and
correspondingly the maximum possible speed for 60 cycle is 3,600 rpm;
for 50 c/s of frequency, the speeds would be 3,000, 1500 and 750 rpm for
2, 4 and 8 poles machines respectively.
Variable Speed Turbines.

These turbines have geared units and may have practically

any speed ratio between the turbine and the driven machine
so that the turbine may be designed for its own most
efficient speed.
Such turbines are used to drive ships, compressors, blowers
and variable frequency generators.
THE SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE

This type of turbine works on the principle of impulse and is shown

diagrammatically. It mainly consists of a nozzle or a set of nozzles, a rotor
mounted on a shaft, one set of moving blades attached to the rotor and a
casing.
The uppermost portion of the diagram shows a longitudinal section through
the upper half of the turbine, the middle portion shows the development of
the nozzles and blading i.e. the actual shape of the nozzle and blading, and
the bottom portion shows the variation of absolute velocity and absolute
pressure during flow of steam through passage of nozzles and blades. The
example of this type of turbine is the de-Laval Turbine.
It is obvious from the figure that the complete expansion of
steam from the steam chest pressure to the exhaust
pressure or condenser pressure takes place only in one set
of nozzles i.e. the pressure drop takes place only in
nozzles. It is assumed that the pressure in the recess
between nozzles and bladesremains the same.
The steam at condenser pressure or exhaust pressure enters
the blade and comes out at the same pressure i.e. the
pressure of steam in the blade passages remains
approximately constant and equal to the condenser
pressure.
Generally, converging-diverging nozzles are used. Due to
the relatively large ratio of expansion of steam in the
nozzles, the steam leaves the nozzles at a very high
velocity (supersonic), of about 1100 m/s.
It is assumed that the velocity remains constant in the
recess between the nozzles and the blades. The steam at
such a high velocity enters the blades and reduces along
the passage of blades and comes out with an appreciable
amount of velocity (Fig. 6.6).
As it has been already shown, that for the
good economy or maximum work, the blade
speeded should be one half of the steam
speed so blade velocity is of about 500 m/s
which is very en high.
This results in a very high rotational speed,
reaching 30,000 r.p.m. Such high rotational
speeds can only be utilised to drive
generators or machines with large reduction
gearing arrangements.
In this turbine, the leaving velocity of steam is also
quite appreciable resulting in an energy loss, called
“carry over loss” or “leaving velocity loss”.

This leaving loss is so high that it may amount to

about 11 percent of the initial kinetic energy. This
type of turbine is generally employed where
relatively small power is needed and where the rotor
diameter is kept fairly small.
IMPULSE-REACTION TURBINE
As the name implies this type of turbine utilizes the principle of im-pulse and reaction
both. Such a type of turbine is diagrammatically shown. There are a number of rows of
moving blades attached to the rotor and an equal number of fixed blades attached to the
casing.
In this type of turbine, the fixed blades which are set
in a reversed manner compared to the moving
blades, corresponds to nozzles mentioned in
connection with the impulse turbine.
Due to the row of fixed blades at the entrance,
instead of the nozzles, steam is admitted for the
whole circumference and hence there is all-round or
complete admission. In passing through the first row
of fixed blades, the steam undergoes a small drop in
pressure and hence its velocity somewhat increases.
After this it then enters the first row of moving
blades and just as in the impulse turbine, it suffers a
change in direction and therefore in momentum.
But in this type of turbine, the passage of the moving
blades is so designed (converging) that there is a
small drop in pressure of steam in the moving blades
which results in a increase in kinetic
energy of steam.
This kinetic energy gives rise to reaction in the
direction opposite to that of added velocity. Thus, the
gross propelling force or driving force is the vector
sum of impulse and reaction forces.
Commonly, this type of turbine is called Reaction
Turbine. It is obvious from the Fig. 6.10 that there is a
gradual drop in pressure in both moving blades and
fixed blades.
As the pressure falls, the specific volume increases and hence in practice, the
height of blades is increased in steps i.e. say upto 4 stages it remains constant,
then it increases and remains constant for the next two stages.
In this type of turbine, the steam velocities are comparatively moderate and its
maximum value is about equal to blade velocity. In general practice, to reduce
the number of stages, the steam velocity is arranged greater than the blade
velocity. In this case the leaving loss is about 1 to 2 per cent of the total initial
available energy. This type of turbine is used mostly in all power plants where it
is great success.
An example of this type of turbine is the Parsons-Reaction Turbine. The power
plants 30 MW and above are all impulse-reaction type.
ADVANTAGES OF STEAM TURBINE OVER STEAM
ENGINE
The various advantages of steam turbine are as follows :
1. It requires less space.
2.Absence of various links such as piston, piston rod, cross head
etc. make the mechanism simple. It is quiet and smooth in operation,
3.Its over-load capacity is large.
4.It can be designed for much greater capacities as compared to
steam engine. Steam turbines can be built in sizes ranging from a
few horse power to over 200,000 horse power in single units.
5.The internal lubrication is not required in steam turbine. This
reduces to the cost of lubrication.
5.The internal lubrication is not required in
steam turbine. This reduces to the cost of
lubrication.
6.In steam turbine the steam consumption
does not increase with increase in years of
service.
7. In steam turbine power is generated at
uniform rate, therefore, flywheel is not
needed.
8. It can be designed for much higher speed
and greater range of speed.
9.The thermodynamic efficiency of steam
STEAM TURBINE CAPACITY
The capacities of small turbines and coupled generators vary from 500 to 7500 kW whereas
large turbo alternators have capacity varying from 10 to 90 mW. Very large size units have
capacities up to 500 mW.
Generating units of 200 mW capacity are becoming quite common. The steam consumption by
steam turbines depends upon steam pressure, and temperature at the inlet, exhaust pressure
number of bleeding stages etc. The steam consumption of large steam turbines is about 3.5 to 5
kg per kWh.
Turbine kW = Generator kW / Generator efficiency

Generators of larger size should be used because of the following reasons:

1.Higher efficiency.
2.Lower cost per unit capacity.
3.Lower space requirement per unit capacity.
3.45.1 Nominal rating.
It is the declared power capacity of turbine expected to be maximum load.
CAPABILITY
The capability of steam turbine is the maximum continuous out put
for a clean turbine operating under specified throttle and exhaust
conditions with full extraction at any openings if provided.
The difference between capability and rating is considered to be
overload capacity. A common practice is to design a turbine for
capability of 125% nominal rating and to provide a generator that
will absorb rated power at 0.8 power factor. By raising power factor
to unity the generator will absorb the full
turbine capability.
STEAM TURBINE GOVERNING

Governing of steam turbine means to regulate the supply of steam to the turbine
in order to maintain speed of rotation sensibly constant under varying load
conditions. Some of the methods employed are as follows :
1.Bypass governing.
2.Nozzle control governing.
3.Throttle governing.
In this system the steam enters the turbine chest (C) through a valve (V)
controlled by governor.
In case of loads of greater than economic load a bypass valve (Vi) opens and
allows steam to pass from the first stage nozzle box into the steam belt (S).
In this method of governing the supply of steam of various
nozzle groups N1, N2, and N3 is regulated by means of valves
V1, V2 and V3 respectively.
In this method of governing the double beat valve is used to
regulate the flow of steam into the turbine. When the load on
the turbine decreases, its speed will try to increase. This will
cause the fly bar to move outward which will in return operate
the lever arm and thus the double beat valve will get moved to
control the supply of steam to turbine.
In this case the valve will get so adjusted that less amount of
steam flows to turbine.
STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE
Turbine performance can be expressed by the following
factors :
1.The steam flow process through the unit-expansion
line or condition curve.
2. The steam flow rate through the unit.
3.Thermal efficiency.
4.Losses such as exhaust, mechanical, generator,
radiation etc.
Mechanical losses include bearing losses, oil pump losses and generator bearing
losses. Generator losses include will electrical and mechanical losses. Exhaust
losses include the kinetic energy of the steam as it leaves the last stage and the
pressure drop from the exit of last stage to the condenser stage.
For successful operation of a steam turbine it is desirable to supply steam at
constant pressure
and temperature. Steam pressure can be easily regulated by means of safety
valve fitted on the boiler.
The steam temperature may try to fluctuate because of the following reasons :
1.Variation in heat produced due to varying amounts of fuel burnt according to
changing loads.
2.Fluctuation in quantity of excess air.
3.Variation in moisture content and temperature of air entering the furnace.
4 STEAM TURBINE TESTING
Steam turbine tests are made for the following:
1.Power
2.Valve setting
3. Speed regulation
4.Over speed trip setting
5.Running balance.
Steam condition is determined by pressure gauge, and
thermometer where steam is super heated.
The acceptance test as ordinarily performed is a check on
Periodic checks for thermal efficiency and load carrying ability are
made. Steam used should be clean. Unclean steam represented by
dust carry over from super heater may cause a slow loss of load
carrying ability.
Thermal efficiency of steam turbine depends on the following
factors:
1.Steam pressure and temperature at throttle valve of turbine.
2.Exhaust steam pressure and temperature.
3. Number of bleedings.
Lubricating oil should be changed or cleaned after 4 to 6 months.
CHOICE OF STEAM TURBINE
The choice of steam turbine depends on the following
factors :
1. Capacity of plant
2. Plant load factor and capacity factor
3.Thermal efficiency
4.Reliability
5.Location of plant with reference to availability of water
for condensate.
STEAM TURBINE GENERATORS

A generator converts the mechanical shaft energy it receive from the turbine into
electrical energy. Steam turbine driven a.c. synchronous generators (alternators)
are of two or four pole designs.

These are three phase measuring machines offering economic, advantages in

generation and transmission. Generator losses appearing as heat must be
constantly removed to avoid damaging the windings.

Large generators have cylindrical rotors with minimum of heat dissipation

surface and so they have forced ventilation to remove the heat. Large generators
generally use an enclosed system with air or hydrogen coolant. The gas picks up
the heat from the generator any gives it up to the circulating water in the heat
exchange
7 STEAM TURBINE SPECIFICATIONS
Steam turbine specifications consist of the following:
(1) Turbine rating. It includes :

(a) Turbine kilowatts

(b) Generator kilovolt amperes
(c) Generator Voltage
(d) Phases
(e) Frequency
(f) Power factor
(g) Excitor characteristics.
(
2.Steam conditions. It includes the following:

(a) Initial steam pressure, and Temperature

(b) Reheat pressure and temperature
(c) Exhaust pressure.

3.Steam extraction arrangement such as automatic or non-automatic

extraction.
4.Accessories such as stop and throttle valve, tachometer etc.
5. Governing arrangement.