SE2053\ACS1153 - Discrete

Structures
Fall 2023

Functions
Application of
Functions

• Define discrete structures such as sequences and strings

• Represent the time that a computer takes to solve
problems of a given size
• Represent the complexity of algorithms
•…
Functions
• In many examples we assign to each element of a set, a
particular element of a second set (which may be the
same as the first).
• For example, suppose that each student in a discrete
mathematics class is assigned a letter grade from the set
{A,B,C,D, F}.
• This assignment is an example of a function.

Ali A
Babar B
Umer C
Imran D
Hamza F
Functions
• Let A and B be nonempty sets.

• A function f from A to B is an assignment of exactly

one element of B to each element of A.

• If b is the unique element of B assigned by the function

f
to the element a of A, we write f(a) = b.

• If f is a function from A to B, we write f: A → B.

Functions

• If f is a function from A to B, we say that A is the

domain of f and B is the codomain of f.

• if f(a) = b, we say that b is the image of a and a is the pre-

image of b.

• The range of f is the set of all images of elements of A.

• Also, if f is function from A to B, we say that f maps A to

B.
 Functions
• A function takes an element from a set and maps it to
a
UNIQUE element in another set.

Domain R f maps R to Z Z Co-domain

f

f(4.3)
4.3 4

Pre-image of 4 Image of 4.3

Arrow Diagram of
Functions
• The definition of a function implies that the arrow diagram
for a function f has the following two properties:

• Every element of A has an arrow coming out of it

• No elements of A has two arrows coming out of it that

point to two different elements of B.
Arrow Diagram of
The pre-image The image
Functions(example) of “a”
Domain Co-domain of 1
Ali A “a” 1

Babar B “bb“ 2

Chishti C “ccc 3
c” 4
Dawood D
“dd” 5
Ammara F
“e”

A class grade function A string length function

g(Ali) = A f(x) = length x

g(Babar) = C f(“a”) = 1
g(Chishti) = A f(“bb”) = 2
… …
Functions
The range of f is the set of all images of elements of
A.

Range
a 1
e 2
i 3
o 4
u 5
Functions

“a” 1
“bb“ 2
“cccc” 3
“dd” 4
“e” 5

Not a valid function

Functions and Non-
Functions
• Which of the arrow diagrams define functions from
• A = {2,4,5,6,7} to B = {1,2,4,6,8}.

Domain Co-domain Domain Co-domain

2 1 2 1
4 2 4 2
5 4 5 4
6 6 6 6
7 8 7 8

A B A B

Not a Function Not a Function

Exampl
e
• Let f : Z → Z
assign the square of an integer to this integer
• What is f (x) =?
• f(x) = x2
• What is domain of f ?
• Set of all integers
• What is codomain of f ?
• Set of all integers
• What is the range of f ?
• {0, 1, 4, 9, . . . }. All integers that are perfect squares
Function
Arithmetic
• Just as we are able to add (+), subtract (-), multiply (*),
and divide (÷) two or more numbers, we are able to + ,
-,
* , and ÷ two or more functions

and f/g are also functions from A to R defined for all x ∈

• Let f and g be functions from A to R. Then f + g, f – g, f * g

A by:
• (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
• (f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
• (f *g)(x) = f (x)*g(x)
• (f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) given that g(x)≠0
Function
Arithmetic
Let f1 and f2 be functions from R to R such that:

• f1(x) = 2x
• f2(x) = x2
• Find f1 + f2 and f1*f2.
• f1+f2 = (f1+f2)(x) = f1(x)+f2(x) = 2x+x2
• f1*f2 = (f1*f2)(x) = f1(x)*f2(x) = 2x*x2 = 2x3
Function
Arithmetic
• Let f and g be functions from R to R such that:
• f (x) = 3x+2 g (x) = -2x + 1
• What is the function f *g?
• f*g = (f*g) (x) = f (x)*g(x) = (3x+2)*(-2x+1) = -6x2- x
+2

Let x = -1, what is f(-1)*g(-1) and (f*g)(-1)?

• f (-1) = 3(-1) + 2 = -1
• g(-1) = -2(-1) + 1= 3
• f(-1)*g(-1) = -1×3 = -3
• (f *g) (-1) = -6(-1)2 – (-1) + 2 = -6+1+2 = -3
One-to-One
Function
• A function is one-to-one if each element in the co-domain
has a unique pre-image
• Formal definition: A function f is one-to-one if f(a) =
f(b) implies a = b for all a and b in the domain of f.
a 1 a 1
e 2 e 2
i 3 i 3
o 4 o 4
5 5

A one-to-one function A function that is

not one-to-one
One-to-One
Function
• 𝑓 is one-to-one using quantifiers as

• ∀𝑎∀𝑏 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑓 𝑏 → 𝑎 = 𝑏 or
equivalently
∀𝑎∀𝑏 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 → 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓 𝑏

• Where 𝑎 and 𝑏 in domain of 𝑓.

More on One-to-One
Functions
• Injective is synonymous with one-to-one
• “A function is injective”
• A function is an injection if it is one-to-one

a 1
e 2
• Note that there can
i 3
be un-used elements
o 4
in the co-domain
5

A one-to-one function
Example one-to-one
• Determine whether the function 𝑓 from *𝑎, 𝑏,
function
𝑐, 𝑑+ to
*1, 2, 3, 4, 5+ with 𝑓 𝑎 = 4, 𝑓 𝑏 = 5, 𝑓
𝑐 = 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑓(𝑑) = 3 is one-to-one.
Onto
Functions
• A function is onto if each element in the co-domain is an
image of some pre-image
• Formal definition: A function f is onto if for all b  B,
there exists a  A such that f(a) = b.

a 1 a 1
e 2 e 2
i 3 i 3
o 4 o 4
u 5

An onto function A function that

is not onto
Onto
functions
• A function 𝑓 is onto if ∀𝑏∃𝑎(𝑓𝑎 = 𝑏), where the
domain for 𝑎 is the domain of the function and the
domain for 𝑏 is the codomain of the function.
More on Onto
Functions
• Surjective is synonymous with onto
• “A function is surjective”
• A function is a surjection if it is onto

• Note that there can

be multiple used a 1
elements in the e 2
co-domain i 3
o 4
u

An onto function
Example onto
• Determine whether the function 𝑓 from *𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐,
function
𝑑+ to
*1, 2, 3+ defined by 𝑓 𝑎 = 3, 𝑓 𝑏 =
2, 𝑓 𝑐 = 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑓(𝑑) = 3. Is 𝑓 an onto function?
 Onto vs One-to-
One
• Are the following functions onto, one-to-one, both, or
neither?
a 1 a 1
a 1
b 2 b 2
b 2
c 3 c 3
c 3
4 d 4
4
1-to-1, not onto Both 1-to-1 and onto Not a valid function
a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3
d d 4

Onto, not 1-to-1 Neither 1-to-1 nor onto

Exampl
e• Determine whether the function f (x) = 𝑥2 from the set

𝑓: 𝑍 → 𝑍; 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2
of integers to the set of integers is one-to-one.
Exampl
• Determine whether the function f (x) = 𝑥 + 1 from the
e
set

𝑓: 𝑍 → 𝑍; 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1
of integers to the set of integers is onto.
Bijections
• Consider a function that is
both one-to-one and onto:
a 1
• Such a function is a one-to-one b 2

correspondence, or a bijection. c 3
d 4
Exampl
e
• Determine whether the following functions are bijective or
not?

𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅; 𝑓 𝑥
= 𝑥3
= �
𝑓: 𝑅 − *0+ → 𝑥+1�
𝑅; 𝑓 𝑥
Floor and
X is the largest integer that is less than or
Ceiling
equal to x and ceiling(x) = X is the smallest integer
• floor(x) =

that is greater than or equal to x

• The floor and ceiling functions give you the nearest
integer up or down.

Sample value x Floor 𝒙 Ceiling 𝒙

12/5 = 2.4 2 3

2.7 2 3

−2.7 −3 −2

−2 −2 −2
Identity
Functions
• A function such that the image and the pre-image are
ALWAYS equal

• f(x) = 1*x
• f(x) = x + 0

• The domain and the co-domain must be the same

set.
Inverse
Function
• Let f be a one-to-one correspondence from the set A to
the set B.
• The inverse function of f is the function that assigns to an
element in b belonging to B the unique element a in A
such that f(a) = b.
• The inverse function of f is denoted by f −𝟏
.
• Hence , f −𝟏
(b) = a when f(a) = b.
Inverse
Functions
If f(a) = b, then f-1(b) = a

A B

f
a= f-1(b) f(a)=b

f-1

A=domain of f B=Co-domain of f
Inverse
Functions If f(x) = y, then f-1(y) = x
Let f(x) = 2*x
f(x)=y
R f R

f-1

4.3 f(4.3) 8.6

f-1(8.6)

Then f-1(y) = y/2

More on Inverse
Functions
•Can we define the inverse of the following functions?

a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3
4 d

What is f-1(2)? What is f-1(2)?

Not onto! Not 1-to-1!
• An inverse function can ONLY be done defined on a
bijection
More on Inverse
Functions
• A one-to-one correspondence is called invertible
because we can define an inverse of this function.

• A function is not invertible if it is not a one-to-one

correspondence, because the inverse of such a function
does not exist.
Exampl
e
• Let f be the function from {a, b, c} to {1, 2, 3} such that
f (a) = 2, f (b) = 3, and f (c) = 1.
• Is f invertible, and if it is, what is its inverse?
Working Rule to Find Inverse
• Let f: X →Y be a one-to-one correspondence defined by
Function
the formula f(x) = y.
1. Solve the equation f(x) = y for x in terms of y.
−𝟏
2. f (y) equals the right hand side of the equation found
in step 1.
Exampl
e
Let f : Z → Z be such that f (x) = x + 1. Is f invertible, and
if
it is, what is its inverse?
Compositions of
Functions
• Let g be a function from the set A to the set B and let f be

the functions f and g, denoted by f °g, is defined by

a function from the set B to the set C. the compositions of

(f °g)(𝒂) = f (g(a))
Compositions of
Functions
(f °g)(a) =
f(g(a))
A f °g C
B f
g
g(a) f(b)
a f(g(a))
b = g(a)

(f °g)
(a)
Compositions of
Functions
f°
Let f(x) = 2x+3 Let g(x) = 3x+2

R g
R
g R f

g(1) f(5)
f(g(1))=13
1
g(1)=5

(f ° g)
(1)
Compositions of
Functions
Does f(g(x)) = g(f(x))?

Let f(x) = 2x+3 Let g(x) = 3x+2

f(g(x)) = 2(3x+2)+3 = 6x+7

g(f(x)) = 3(2x+3)+2 = 6x+11 Not equal!

Function composition is not commutative!

Compositions of
Functions
• Let A = {1,2,3,4,5}
f : A → A and g : A → A
f(1) = 3, f(2) = 5, f(3) = 3, f(4) = 1, f(5) = 2
g(1) = 4, g(2) = 1, g(3) = 1, g(4) = 2, g(5) = 3
Find the composition functions f ◦ g and g ◦ f .
f◦g g◦f
(f ◦ g ) (1) = f(g(1)) = f(4) =1 (g ◦ f ) (1) = g(f(1)) = g(3) = 1
(f ◦ g ) (2) = ? (g ◦ f ) (2) = ?
(f ◦ g ) (3) = ? (g ◦ f ) (3) = ?
(f ◦ g ) (4) = ? (g ◦ f ) (4) = ?
(f ◦ g ) (5) = ? (g ◦ f ) (5) = ?
Compositions of
Let g : A → A be the function, Set A = {a, b, c} such that g(a) = b,
Functions
g(b) = c, and g(c) = a.

Let f : A → B be the function, Set A = {a, b, c} to the set B = {1,

2,
3} such that f (a) = 3, f (b) = 2, and f (c) = 1.

What is the composition of f and g, and what is the composition

of g and f?
Solution:
The composition f ◦ g is defined by
(f ◦ g)(a) = f (g(a)) = f (b) = 2,
(f ◦ g) (b) = f (g(b)) = f (c) = 1,
(f ◦ g)(c) = f (g(c)) = f (a) = 3.
g ◦ f is not defined, because the range of f is not a subset of the
domain of g.
Exercise
Questions

Chapter # 2
Topic # 2.3
Q#1-40(Odd)