ED 202:

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

WELCOME TO 2021 ED202 Notes & PPT

UNIT LECTURER: Ateka FlorenceEmail: fateka@cuea.edu
Mobile: 0727517535
 Definition of Terms

Education - Process of acquiring desirable

knowledge and skills and attitudes.

Curriculum - A course of study.

Curriculum Theory - A set of related statements

that give meaning to school curriculum.
Definition Cont…

Aim - A statement that guides and directs

educational planning
Goal - A statement that provides ultimate
destination
Objective - A statement of performance to be
demonstrated, stated in
measurable and observable terms
 Definition Cont…

Assessment - Process to check if there is a

change in learners behavior.
Measurement - Means of determining the
degree of achievement of a particular
objective
Testing - Use of instruments for measuring
achievement.
Definition Cont…

Curriculum design - The structure or

pattern of organization of the curriculum.
Curriculum design model - A set of ways
to arrange curriculum.
Curriculum development - An activity
which results in plans for instruction.
Definition Cont…

Curriculum implementation - Actual

operationalization of the curriculum in
schools.

Curriculum evaluation - Process of

establishing the extent to which curriculum
objectives have been achieved
Definition Cont…

Curriculum Change - A shift in position of a

curriculum due to perceived need or
unforeseen circumstances

Curriculum Innovation - Introduction of

something new that deviates from the
standard practice.
Definition Cont…

Teacher - Any person who is

responsible for the education of pupils

Teaching - Giving instruction to

somebody
Definition Cont…

Teacher education - a process by which

an individual gains knowledge or
insight or develops skills and attitudes
that would enable him/her to
perform the art of teaching effectively
Definition Cont…

Curriculum foundation - The basis

upon which curriculum is developed
Historical foundation - Factors and
issues from the past that influence
curriculum at present
Definition Cont…

Philosophy - search for truth; pursuit

of wisdom or knowledge
Definition Cont…

Sociological foundation- Issues from society

including groups and institutions in the culture
and their contribution to education

Psychological foundation- Includes insights gained

from the field of psychology that have a bearing
on the learning process and consequently the
curriculum
 Meaning of Education

As a student teacher, you

will need to reflect on the
meaning and functions of
education, to understand,
Meaning of Education cont…

and prepare yourself to fully

comprehend the concept of
curriculum, its development and
implementation, and thus carry out
your future role as an educator
effectively.
Meaning of Education cont…

 Education has been described differently by

different people.
 One way of viewing education is that it is a
process of acquiring the desirable knowledge,
skills and attitudes to fit well in society and
become a useful member of that society.
 The term education means “to draw out”, i.e.
Meaning of Education cont…

facilitating realization of self-

potential and latent talents of
an individual. The teacher thus
uses “curriculum” to bring out
the best out of the learners.
 What then are the function of education?

Education has a variety of functions

including the following:
• Intellectual function. This is to
enable men awaken in and have a
taste of knowledge.
 It is also to develop intellectual
powers of learners.
function of education cont…

Productive function i.e. provide

individuals with knowledge,
skills and attitudes that could
be used for economic activities
in a society.
function of education cont…

Vocational training contributes

to this function.
function of education cont…

 Social function in this context, education

is considered as a process of preserving
and transmission of cultural heritage.
 Beside education helps learners acquire
skills for interpersonal relationship
function of education cont…

Education is also a means of

individual development.
It therefore serves a personal
function.
 Meaning of Curriculum

 The term ‘curriculum’ originated from the

Greek word “curere” meaning to “run a
course”.
 It therefore represents a course of
subjects covered by learners in their race
towards a certain educational goal or
target.
Meaning of Curriculum cont…

Curriculum definitions have

developed along a continuum from
narrow to broad ones.
There is also a myriad of curriculum
definitions by different scholars.
Meaning of Curriculum cont…

Narrow definitions see

curriculum as a plan,
programme, course of study or
a package that can bring about
learning.
Meaning of Curriculum cont…

Following are some definitions from

this
narrow perspective:
Meaning of Curriculum cont…

 A course of study
 A plan for teaching and
instruction; it can be viewed as
a blueprint for instruction (Pratt,
1994)
 Meaning of Curriculum cont…

Broad definitions on the other hand

see curriculum as a process.
The process includes the thinking
behind coming up with a ‘package’ and
the continuous effort of making it serve
the needs of society.
Meaning of Curriculum cont…

It includes values, attitudes, and

experiences of students inside and
outside the school.
Elements/components of a
curriculum

A curriculum generally is
expected to consist of the
following elements:
1. Aims, goals and objectives.
Elements/components cont…

2. Subject content / learning experiences

3. Methods / strategies of delivery /

learning activities

4. Organization of learning Experiences

 Scope of Curriculum Studies

Curriculum studies incorporate a

variety of issues and processes
including:
- Curriculum theory
- Curriculum planning
- Curriculum design
Scope cont…

- Curriculum development
- Curriculum implementation
- Curriculum evaluation
 What is curriculum theory?

Curriculum theory refers to a

set of related statements that
give meaning to school
curriculum; by pointing out the
relationships among its
elements and by directing its
development, its use and its
curriculum theory cont…

Itgives justification for

practices in curriculum.
According to Urevbu (1990), a
curriculum theory should
provide a practical
guidance as to:
curriculum theory cont…


“What to teach”
•

• “Who is taught”.
• Who should control its
selection and distribution, and
• Who gets taught what?
curriculum theory cont…

In other words, it is a way of

seeing ‘things’ or guiding
principles for curriculum.
Functions of Curriculum Theory

What then are functions of a

theory? Most philosophers of
science argue that
theory has 3 legitimate
purposes:
Functions cont…

To describe
- To Explain
- To predict
Functions cont…

Thus, a curriculum theory provides

educators with a critical
perspective about the society and
its schools.
Hence, they describe and explain
from a critical perspective.
Functions cont…

Curriculum theory is
therefore important for
planning curriculum.
 Functions cont…

It helps in guiding the

planning process and
ultimates curriculum
development.
The theory used is reflected
in the produce i.e. the final
Curriculum Planning

 Thiscan be viewed as the process of

gathering, selecting, balancing and
synthesizing relevant information from
many sources in order to design those
experiences that will assist the learner
attain the goals of education (Glen,
Hass, 1980).
Thus, it deals with seeking key
answers to crucial questions
such as:
What should be taught?
- How should it be taught?
Curriculum Planning

To what segment of the population

and What should be the
relationship between the various
components of the curriculum?
 Curriculum Design

This refers to the structure or

pattern of organization of the
curriculum (Doll,
1992).
 Curriculum Development

Curriculum development is
the term under which all
processes and activities of
the school curriculum are
subscribed.
It is thus a continuing
 Curriculum implementation

Curriculum implementation is
putting into effect what has been
planned.
 It is thus the process of ensuring
that the new curriculum and
curriculum materials are made
available to all the schools and
 Curriculum Evaluation

This is the process of

checking the extent to which
the curriculum objectives
have been achieved.
 Curriculum as a field of study and as a programme of
instruction

 Curriculum can be viewed either as a field

of study or as a programme of instruction.

 As a field of study, curriculum is designed

to improve and advance knowledge about
curricula, their development and use .
Curriculum as a field of study and as a programme of
instruction

As a discipline for study, the area

has enough knowledge content
which can be passed on through
instruction and which grows
through research.
Curriculum as a field of study and as a programme of
instruction

On the other hand, curriculum

as a programme of instruction
incorporates a programme of
school/college work, dealing
with all experiences of the
learner, ie.
Curriculum as a field of study and as a programme of
instruction

allthat which is planned and

provided for the learners for their
education.
This in includes the syllabuses and
the courses of study, among others.
Educational, Aims, Goals and Objectives

 Aims,goals and objectives are crucial in the

curriculum development process.
Educational aims
 Aims serve a visionary function in curriculum;
a rallying point for all curriculum activities.
 Aimsalso have a global quality and a broad
framework.
Educational, Aims, Goals and Objectives

 Theyhelp in guiding and directing educational

planning.
 They also establish the philosophy on which
curriculum is based and express the values
expected. Thus, aims constitute the first stage
of curriculum planning.
 Four Dimensions of Aims

 Intellectual – Focus on development of

intellect.
 Social – Deal with interpersonal relationships.
 Personal – Dealing with self development.
 Productive – Address economic aspects of the
society, both micro and macro economics.
 Goals

These constitute a more specific

application of aims, so goals
provide destination.
Goals have an end in mind so that
particular purposes can be
achieved.
 Goals

 Goals indicate what is expected to be

accomplished from particular effort.
 For instance from a programme,
course, subject, application of
resources, amount of time allocated
to a particular curriculum task etc.
 Objectives

Definition: Statement of
performance to be demonstrated;
derived from instructional goal and
stated in measurable and observable
terms.
Objectives cont…

Objectives provide more specific

guidance in making decisions on
various aspects of the curriculum.
Objectives are thus written using
measurable and observable terms.
 Sources of Educational Objectives

Generally, there are three main

sources of objectives: the learners,
society and subject matter.
Lets examine each in turn.
Learners as sources of Objectives

In formulating goals and objectives,

curriculum planners are concerned
principally with the needs of
learners as members of society.
Learners as sources of Objectives

 Also important are their interests, and aspirations as

well as their potential.
Learners needs can be categorised into the following:
 - Physical Needs
 - Social Needs
 - Psychological Needs
Physical Needs
 Curriculumdevelopers should ask themselves
what the physical needs of students are as
members of the human community.
 Examples of universal human needs include
food, clothing, shelter and good health,
among others.
 Generally,all students have the same
physical needs globally.
 Tomeet students physical needs therefore
means that educational objectives should be
formulated specifically to cater for areas of
knowledge, skills and attitudes that will help
meet those needs.
Sociological Needs
 All students possess sociological needs which
schools must strive to satisfy.
 These include affection from home, school and
peers; acceptance, belonging, success, security,
status and respect.
 Social needs of students must therefore form one of
the basis for formulating educational objectives.
Psychological Needs
 Thepsychological aspects of learners’ e.g.
emotional needs, should be taken into
consideration in deriving educational
objectives.
 Ofspecial importance are needs of those who
are in special circumstances, those with
disabilities such as mental, specially gifted
children, emotionally disturbed, and retarded
 Curriculum must address these situations for
all children to benefit from education.
Dimensions of Curriculum

 There are many dimensions of curriculum;

including formal (or expressed),
informal (or hidden) and non-formal: among
others.

Formal dimension is generally considered as

the written document that specifies
what is to be taught and how it will be taught
 The formal curriculum therefore includes the aims,
goals and objectives, learning content, delivery
strategies and methods of evaluation.
 It is the course of study or syllabus.

 This is the curriculum dimension that is “planned for”

or the predetermined part of the curriculum.
 Non-formal Curriculum –

 This
refers to learning planned outside the
formal learning system.
 Forexample, learning taking place through
students with similar interest coming together
and exchanging viewpoints, e.g. in clubs,
youth organizations or workshops; or even in
various games.
 Hidden Curriculum

 Consists of indirect messages received by

learners from the physical, social and
intellectual environments of the school.
 It includes norms and values of the
surrounding society.
 These are stronger and more durable than the
formal curriculum and may be in conflict with
it.
 Thisis something that is not explicitly taught
but it is part of what molds the school
environment, and consequently the learner.
 Informal Curriculum,

 Sometimes referred to as hidden curriculum

includes those activities that happen that are not
designed, planned or formally accepted by the
school.
 Informal learning occurs through the experience
of day-to-day situations.
 It is learning from life, during say play, exploring,
during a meal at table etc.
 Null Curriculum

 Consists of what is not taught in the school

set-up.
 This
may give students the impression that
these elements are not important in their
educational experiences or in the society.
 The education system may use a combination
of formal, informal and non-formal curricula
and learning approaches.
What is a Curriculum Foundation ?

 Many scholars define curriculum foundation

as the “Values, traditions, factors and forces
which influence the kind, quantity and quality
of the experience the school offers its
learners” (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992: 59).
 They therefore constitute the basis upon
which curriculum is developed.
Four major Categories of Curriculum Foundations


Historical foundations
 Philosophical foundations
 Psychological foundations and
 Sociological foundations
Historical Foundations of Curriculum

 Historicalfoundations of curriculum refer to

factors and issues from the past that have an
influence on the curriculum at present.
 For instance, the nature of the present
curriculum in any school system of education
is influenced by the nature of the curriculum
in the past.
Some of the major forms of education in the past that
are recognized globally in education include:
 Traditional Education
 Ancient Education which includes: Greek
Education, Roman education and Christian
Education
 Early Modern Era, which includes: Renaissance,
Reformation and Enlightenment (Age of Reason)
 Modern Era including: Progressivism
Traditional African
 Within the African context, education systems
and practices during the colonial era (for most
of Africa) would have an influence on current
curriculum.
African Indigenous Education Cont…

Aims of African Indigenous Education:

1. Every skill, knowledge or attitude learnt was
either for protection, acquiring of food or
shelter (Sifuna, 1994, 1982)
2. To
create unity and consensus among society
members
African Indigenous Education Cont…

1. Toprepare the cultural heritage of particular

ethnic group and to preserve ethnic
boundaries
2. To
inculcate feelings of group supremacy and
communal living
3. Toprepare the young for adult roles and
status
African Indigenous Education Cont…

 Education was both formal and informal

 Formal educational was taught by some

professionals such as herbalists, midwives and
others.

 It was taken in specific venues and resources

African Indigenous Education Cont…

 Ininformal education children were taught by

their parents on domestic chores

 The nature of education was determined by

the parents’ occupation e.g. the child of a
fisherman would learn fishing
Features of African Indigenous Education

 Had a collective and social nature and was

vocation specific- prepared the youth for
specific roles in the society

 Itwas closely linked to the everyday social life

in the community (both material and spiritual
perspectives)
 Features Cont…

 Itwas multidisciplinary – aimed at moulding

character as well as providing high moral
qualities in the youth
 Was holistic – reflected gradual and progressive
achievement in conformity with the successive
stages of physical, emotional and mental
development of the child (Shiundu and
Omulando, 1992)
Stages in African Traditional Education

 In all societies, traditional education was aimed at learning the

ways of the parents.

 It was, and still is in some communities, a very conservative form

of education and emphasizes on maintaining the status quo in
society.

 The culture, traditions and practices of the people are passed on

from one generation to the next in methods that do not change
much over the years.
 Stages Cont…

 TheRepublic of Kenya, for example, has

communities that uphold traditional education
dearly.
Shortfalls of African Indigenous Education

 Provided no room for creativity and individual

development
 Was conservative due to the little interaction from outside
and change was almost impossible especially where elders
were involved
 It was discriminatory in terms of gender
 Was authoritarian, young were not allowed to speak their
views
 Lacked feedback
 Colonial and Missionary Education

 Missionaryeducation was provided by

different missionary groups
 These were in schools
 Mainaim was to provide catechists and
eventually church leaders/preachers who
would help in looking for converts in their
churches
 Aim to destroy African traditional education to
replace it with theirs
 Colonial and Military Education Cont…

 This led to unhealthy competition and social

animosity that led to family disintegration
 This set pace for the education we have today
without which many Africans would not have been
educated
 However led to stratification in the society
 In Kenya we had strata like education for
European, Asians and that for Africans
 Post Colonial Education

 Education for self reliance based on African socialism

philosophy

 The late Mwalimu Julius Nyerere felt that the colonial

system induced attitudes of human inequality and
was based on race.

 African socialism was based on three principles

 Post Colonial Education Cont…

 Work by everyone and exploitation by none

 Fair sharing of resources which are

produced by joint efforts and

 Equality and respect for human dignity

 Post Colonial Education Cont…

 According to Nyerere, adult education should:

 Help people know how to improve their lives

 Help people understand the national

principles of socialism and self reliance
 Post Colonial Education Cont…

 Shake people out of resignation to the kind of life

they have lived for centuries past

 Guide adult learners from their own experiences

(learner-centred education)

 Be continuous through one’s life (life-long learning)

 MEANING OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

 Curriculumdesign is largely concerned with

issues such as what to include in the
curriculum and how to present it in such a
way that the curriculum can be implemented
with understanding and success (Barlow et al,
1984).
 Meaning Cont…

 Ittherefore refers to the way in which the

component parts or elements of the
curriculum have been arranged in order to
facilitate learning (Shiundu & Omulando,
1992).
 Meaning Cont…

 The element includes; aims, goals and objectives,

content, learning activities and evaluation.

 Further, Curriculum Design is concerned with issues of

making a choice of what should be the organizational
basis or structural framework of the curriculum.

 The choice of a design often implies a value position.

 Meaning Cont…

 The curriculum design process results in a

curriculum document that contains the
following:
 A statement of purpose(s)
 An instructional guide that displays
behavioural objectives and content
organization in harmony with school
organization.
 Meaning Cont…

 A set of guidelines (or rules) governing

the use of the curriculum, and

 An evaluation scheme.
 WAYS OF DESIGNING SCHOOL CURRICULUM

 Learner – centred,

 Broadfields; and

 Core-curriculum
 Subject-Centred Curriculum

 Thiscurriculum design refers to the

organization of curriculum in terms of
separate subjects e.g. Geography, Maths, and
History etc.

 This
has been the oldest school curriculum
design and the commonest in the world.
 Subject-Centred Curriculum
Cont…

 Itwas even practiced by the ancient Greek

educators. The subject centred design was
adapted by African education systems from
Europe.

 Itis used mainly in the upper primary

sections,
secondary school classes and colleges.
 Subject-Centred Curriculum
Cont…

 Teachers,for instance, are trained and

specialized to teach one or two subjects at
secondary school level in many countries.

 This
type of curriculum organization is still
being used in African schools today
 Advantages

1. It is possible and desirable to determine in

advance what all children will learn in
various subjects and grades (classes).
For instance, syllabus for all schools in
centralized systems of education are prepared
and approved centrally by the curriculum
development body for a given country.
 Advantages Cont…

 Forinstance, in Kenya, the Kenya Institute of

Curriculum Development (KICD) prepares all
the syllabuses and then sends to all the
schools in the country, irrespective of
geographical position, status, resources,
manpower available and cultural variations.
 Advantages Cont…

 2.It is feasible and necessary to determine

minimum standards of performance and
achievement for the knowledge specified in
the subject area.

 Almost all text-books and support materials

present on the educational market are
organized on subject by subject format.
 Advantages Cont…

3. Also tradition seems to give this design

greater support.
4. People have become familiar and more
comfortable with this design and seem to view
it as part of the system of the school and
education as a whole.
 Advantages Cont…

 5.The subject-centred curriculum is better

understood by teachers because their training
was based on this method. i.e. specialization.
 Advantages Cont…

 6. The advocates of the subject-centred

design have argued that intellectual powers
of individual learners can be developed
through this approach.

 7. Curriculum planning is easier and simpler

in the subject centred curriculum design.
 Criticisms of Subject-Centred Design

1. Subject-centred curriculum tends to bring

about a high degree of fragmentation of
knowledge.

2.Subject-centred curriculum lacks integration

of content. Learning in most cases tends to be
compartmentalized.
 Criticisms Cont…


Subject or knowledge are broken down into
smaller seemingly unrelated bits of
information to be learned.

3. This design stresses content and tends to

neglect the needs, interests and experiences of
the students.
 Criticisms Cont…

4. There has always been an assumption that

information learned through subject matter
curriculum will be transferred for use in everyday life
situations.

 This claim has been put into doubt by many

scholars who argue that automatic transfer of the
information already learned is not possible.
 Learner – Centred / Child-centred Curriculum

 The curriculum designs which come under the

name learner-centred may take various forms
sometimes referred to as individualized
approaches.

 In this design, the curriculum is organized

around needs, interests, abilities and aspirations
of students.
 Learner – Centred / Child-centred Cont…

 Emphasize that attention should be paid to what is

known about human growth, development and
learning.

 Planning this type of curriculum should be done

along with the students, after identifying their
varied concerns, interests and priorities and then
develop appropriate topics as per the issues raised.
 Learner – Centred / Child-centred Cont…

 requiresa lot of resources and manpower, in

order to cater for the variety of needs.

 Hence, the design is more commonly used in

the developed countries, while in developing
world the use is more limited.
 Learner – Centred / Child-centred Cont…

 To support this approach, Hilda Taba (1962)

stated:
 Children like best those things that are attached
to solving actual problems that help them in
meeting real needs or that connect with some
active interest.
 Learning in its true sense is an active
transaction.
 Advantages of Learner-Centred design

1. The needs and interests of students are

considered in the selection and organization of
content.

2. Since the needs and interests of students

are considered in the planning of students
work, the resulting curriculum is relevant to
the students world.
 Advantages Cont…

3. The design allows students to be active and

acquire skills and procedures that will be
applicable to the outside world.
 Criticisms of Learner – Centred approach

1. The needs and interest of students may not

be valid or long lasting. They are often short-
lived.

2. The interests and needs of students may not

reflect specific areas of knowledge that could be
essential for successful functioning in the
society in general. Quite often, it has been
observed that the needs and interests of
Criticisms Cont…

3. The nature of the education systems and the

society in many countries particularly the
developing ones may not permit learner-centred
curriculum design to be implemented
effectively.
 Criticisms Cont…

4. As pointed out earlier, the design is

expensive with regard to resources, both human
and fiscal, that are needed to satisfy the needs
and interest of individual students.
 Criticisms Cont…

5. This design is sometimes accused of

shallowness. It is argued that critical analysis
and in-depth coverage of subject content is
inhibited by the fact that students needs and
interests guide the planning process.
 Broad-Fields Curriculum

 In the broad-fields curriculum design two,

three or more subjects are unified into one
broad course of study.

 This organization is actually a system of

combining and regrouping subjects that are
related in the curriculum.
 Broad-Fields Cont…

 Attempts to develop some kind of synthesis or

unity for the entire branch or more branches
of knowledge into new fields. For example;
1. Language Arts – This incorporates Reading,
writing, grammar, literature, speech etc.
Kiswahili and foreign languages.
 Broad-Fields Cont…

2. General Science – to include Natural and

Physical Sciences
a. Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Astronomy,
Physical Geography.
b. Zoology, Botany, Biology and Physiology
 Broad-Fields Cont…

3. Others include:
• Environmental Education
• Family Life Education
 Advantages of Broad-Field Design

1. It is based on separate subjects, so it provides for an

orderly and systematic exposure to the cultural heritage.

2. It integrates separate subjects into a single course;

this enables learners to see the relationships among
various elements in the curriculum.

3. It saves time on the school time-table.

 Criticisms

1. It lacks depth and cultivates shallowness.

2. It provides only bits and pieces of information

from a variety of subjects.

3. It does not account for psychological

organization by which learning takes place.
 Core-Curriculum Design

Meaning of Core-Curriculum
 The concept core-curriculum is used to refer
to areas of study in the school curriculum or
any educational programme that are required
by all students.
 Thecore-curriculum provides students with
“common learning” or general education –
that is considered necessary for all.
 Core-Curriculum Cont…

 Thus, the core-curriculum constitutes the

segment of the curriculum that teaches
common concepts, skills, and attitudes
needed by all individuals in order to function
effectively within their society.
 Characteristics of Core-Curriculum Design

1. They constitute a section of the curriculum

that all students are required to take.

2. They unify or fuse subject matter, especially

in subjects such as English, social studies etc.
 Characteristics Cont…

3. Their content is planned around problems that cut

across the disciplines. In this approach, the basic
methods of learning is problem solving using all
applicable subject matter.

4. They are organized into blocks of time; e.g. two or

three periods under a core teacher. Other teachers
may be utilized where it is possible.
 Types of Core-Curriculum Designs

Type One: Separate subjects taught separately

with little or no effort to relate them to each
other. E.g. Mathematics, Science, Languages,
and Humanities may be taught as unrelated
core-subjects in high schools.
Type Two: The Fused-core
 Thefused-core is based on the overall
integration of two or more subjects; for
example,
1. Physics, Chemistry, Botany and Zoology may
be taught as General Science.
2. Environmental Education – this is an area
with interdisciplinary approach in curriculum
planning.
 3.History, Geography, Economics, Sociology
and Anthropology may be combined and
taught as Sociology.
 CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

 There
are a variety of curriculum design
models to guide the process.
 Most of the designs are based on Ralph Tyler’s
work, which emphasizes on the role and place
of objectives in curriculum design.
 CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

A relationship always exists

between the elements of
curriculum; that is Objectives,
content, learning Experiences and
the Evaluation
 CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

A Curriculum Development Model is

a convenient methods of showing
the relationship amongst the
curriculum Elements in the
curriculum development process.
 CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

Itcan therefore be seen as a

framework or plan of action for
designing the structured set of
learning experiences.
 CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

Curriculum Development Models

can be classified into:
Objective Models (e.g. Tylor,
Wheeler and Kerr)
Interaction Models
Process Model (e.g. Skilbeck)
 CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

 Theobjectives and the interactions

models form the two extremes of
continuum, while the Process Model is
somewhere in between them.
 CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

All the three models have their

merits and demerits and no
particular model is preferred for it
all depends on the preference of
the developers.
 CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

Interms of effectiveness, what

matters is the consistence between
the curriculum Elements and not
necessarily the ways that these are
achieved.
 THE RALPH TYLER’S MODEL

Tyler’s Model (1949) is based on the following FOUR

basis/fundamental questions he posed, for guiding the
Curriculum design process. These are:-
1. What educational purposes should the school seek
to attain?

2. What educational Experiences can be provided that

are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be
effectively organized?

4. How can we determine whether these

purposes are being attained?
Ralph Tylers Linear Model

Stating
Objectives

Selecting Learning Experiencess

Organizing Learning Experiences

Evaluation
 Application of Ralph Tyler’s model in Curriculum Design

 In applying Tyler’s model to curriculum design,

the process starts with coming up with objectives
for the curriculum.
 Because of its emphasis on importance of
objectives, it is considered to be an objective
based model.
 This process starts with analyzing information
from various data sources.
 Application of Ralph Tyler’s
model

 Data sources for curriculum according to Tyler

include:

• Contemporary society/life. For this source, the

designer analyses the issues affecting society
that could be solved through education
 Application of Ralph Tyler’s
model

Examples of these are; cultural issues, socio-

economic issues, and health issues such as
HIV/Aids among others.
 Learner’s needs and interests.
 Subject specialists / subject matter.
 Application of Ralph Tyler’s
model

 From these sources, the designer comes up

with educational purposes/general
objectives.
 Theseare subjected to a screening process,
using philosophy of education and
psychology of learning as the major
screens.
 Social
values are also used as a screen, but
sometimes these are subsumed in philosophy
 Application of Ralph Tyler’s
model

1. Specific objectives are then derived from

the general objectives. For each of the specific
objectives,
2. Learning Experiences are identified.
 In this context, the learning experiences
include the subject matter / content and the
learning activities.
 Learning Experiences

 Learning experiences refer to the interaction

between the learner and the external
conditions in the environment which he/she
encounters.
 Learning takes place through the active
behaviour participation of the students; it is
what the student is involved in that he/she
learns not what the teacher does.
 Application of Ralph Tyler’s
model

3.Organisation of learning experiences.

 This
is done to ensure effective learning takes
place.
 Thevarious principles of organization include:
scope, sequence, integration, continuity,
among others.
 Application of Ralph Tyler’s
model

4. Evaluation, to determine the extent to

which the objectives have been met.
 Feedback from the evaluation could then be
used to modify the learning experiences and
the entire curriculum as found necessary.
 General Principles in Selecting Learning Experiences

1. Provide experiences that give students

opportunities to practice the behaviour and deal
with the content implied.

2. Provide experiences that give satisfaction

from carrying on the kind of behaviour implied
in the objectives.
 General PrinciplesCont…

3. Provide experiences that are appropriate to the

student’s present attainments, his/her predispositions.

4. There are many particular experiences that can be

used to attain the same educational objectives.

5. The same learning experience will usually bring about

several outcomes.
 Selection of Subject Matter/Content

 Theterm subject matter / content refers to

the data, concept, generalizations and
principles of school subjects such as
mathematics, biology or chemistry that are
organized into bodies of knowledge
sometimes called disciplines.
 Selection of Subject
Matter/Content

 Forinstance, Ryman (1973) specifically

defines content as: Knowledge such as facts,
explanations, principles, definitions, skills and
processes such as reading, writing,
calculating, dancing and values such as the
beliefs about matters concerned with good
and bad, right and wrong, beautiful and ugly.
 Criteria for the Selection of Content

 Include: validity, significance, needs and interests

of learners.
Validity
 The term validity implies a close connection
between content and the goals which it is
intended to serve. In this sense, content is valid if
it promotes the outcomes that it is intended to
promote.
 Criteria Cont…

 Selectionof content and learning experience

is one crucial part in curriculum making.
 Criteria Cont…

Significance
 Significance
of curriculum content refers to
the sustainability of the material chosen to
meet certain needs and ability level of the
learners.
 Criteria Cont…

Needs and Interests of the Learner

 The needs and interests of the learners have
to be considered in the selection of content,
to ensure a relevant curriculum to the
student’s world.
 Also ensures the students will be more
motivated to undertake the curriculum.
 Criteria Cont…

Utility
 Inthis context, subject matter of a curriculum
should be selected in the light of its
usefulness to the learner in solving his/her
problems now and in the future.
 Criteria Cont…

Learnability
 Curriculumcontent should be learnable and
adaptable to students’ experiences.
 One factor in learnability is the adjustment of
the curriculum content and of the focus of
learning experience to the abilities of the
learners.
 Criteria Cont…

Learnability
 Foreffective learning the abilities of
students must be taken into account at
every point of the selection and
organization.
 Criteria Cont…

Consistency with Social Realities

 Ifthe curriculum is to be a useful prescription
for learning, its content and the outcomes it
pursues need to be in tune with the social and
cultural realities of the times.
 Criticisms of Tyler’s Model

It’s
too simple a Model and
assumes that evaluation needs to
be a terminal process.
 The Wheeler Model

 Instead of the linear relationship between

elements of curriculum, Wheeler suggested a
cyclical framework
 Itis a closed model that assumes that all
considerations are contained in the model
 The five steps of Wheeler’s model are:
 THE WHEELER MODEL (1967)

 Wheeler came up with a cyclic model (see figure

below) in reaction to criticism levelled at the
Ralph Tyler’s model.
 The latter was seen as being too simplistic and
vertical.
 By being vertical it did not recognize the
relationship between various curriculum
elements.
 WHEELER MODEL Cont…

 His cyclic proposal was therefore aimed at

highlighting the interrelatedness of the
various curriculum elements.

 Italso emphasizes the need to use feedback

from evaluation in redefining the goals and
objectives of the curriculum.
 Wheeler’s Model Cont…

 Selections of aims, goals and objectives

 Selection of learning experiences
 Selection of content
 Organizationand integration of learning
experiences and content
 Evaluation of effectiveness of the phases in
attaining the objectives
 Wheeler Model

Selection of aims, goals and objectives

Evaluation Selection of learning Experiences

Organisation and integration of Selection of Content

Learning Experiences and content
Wheeler’s Model Cont…

 The model shows that Curriculum Planning process is

a continuous activity that starts with determination of
aims, goals and objectives and sequentially goes
through the other three phases to evaluation and the
feedback from evaluation is used to determine new
aims, goals and objectives which lead again to the
selection of new content, new learning experiences
and sequentially, back to evaluation.
 JOHN KERR’S AND HILDA TABA’S MODEL

 Other scholars who were also convinced of the

‘objectives’ approach to curriculum design were
John Kerr and Hilda Taba.
 Their work is summarized in the simplified
models presented in the figures that follow.
 Both of them emphasize on the interrelatedness
of the various curriculum elements.
 JohnKerr, a British Curriculum specialist in the
1960s, was particularly concerned with the
following issues: objectives, knowledge,
school learning experiences and evaluation.
 Kerr’s Model

OBJECTIVES

CONTENT
LEARNING EXPERIENCES

EVALUATION
 Kerr’s Model Cont…

 This model indicates how objectives are

linked and interrelated to the content,
learning experiences and evaluation.
 Itdivides the domain of curriculum into
four elements.
 Itregards the three sources of
objectives as the learners, the society
and subject discipline.
 Kerr’s Model Cont…

 Thedouble headed arrows linking the

evaluation and the objectives illustrate
that the specified objectives may be
modified on the basis of evaluation results.
 Evaluation can be done at any point during
the curriculum development process
according to this model.
 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF
OBJECTIVE MODELS

Merits
 There is apparent logic in the sequence of the
stages of curriculum development in the model
 With the objectives as the first stage, the
developer is provided with a clear and guide for
the entire
 It provides a blue print and a fixed guide for the
curriculum development process
Demerits
 Itprovides a dichotomy between the ends
(objectives) and the means (content and
method) which should not
 Italso wrongly assumes that all subjects are
suited to the specification of objectives;
where this is not true. The art subjects are
good examples.
 INTERACTION MODEL/LINEAR

Main Features
 One can begin with any curriculum element
(no one specification)

 Any sequence among the elements can also

be followed
 Elements are interpreted as interactive and
progressively modifiable (cohesiveness-
content-method-objective-resources)
 The reaction to the learning situation
determines he sequence to be followed (how
will it be received, hence flexible and
responds to particular environment)
 The Process Models

 Are known for the following features:

 The have no initial statements of Objectives
 Theydo not endorse the notion that
evaluation is of pre-specified objectives
 Theyhave a smaller emphasis on content
than method
 They
support the view that some content and
method are of intrinsic value
Skilbeck’s Process Model

Situational Analysis

Goal Formulation

Programme Building

Interpretation and Implementation

Monitoring, Feedback, Assessment

and Reconstraction
Merits
 Encourages team/group work on different elements and
aspects of the curriculum development process
 Encourages curriculum development process to start at
any stage
 It identifies the learning situation as the major
problematic area of curriculum development.
 Thus stimulates educational discourse of the situation to
be changed
Demerits
 Itsdiagram form is usually complex and
wide because an attempt is made to
show all its presage, process and
product variables
 Itis not very easy to follow although its
approach is probably the nearest to
practical situation
 Factors that Influence Curriculum Design

 Teacher’s individual characteristics

 Application of technology
 Student’s cultural background and socio-
economic status
 Interactions between teachers and students
 Classroom management; among many other
factors.
 CLASS ASSIGNMENT

 Group1. The role in curriculum

implementation of central government,
schools, QUASo
 Group 2. Teachers service commission,
Curriculum support Officers Parents, Problems
in curriculum implementation
 Group 3. Curriculum for teacher education –
types, scope, balances of teacher education
programs
 CLASS ASSIGNMENT Cont…

 Group4. The role of national

examination bodies in curriculum
evaluation
 Group5. Evaluation activities at each
stage of the curriculum development
processes
 CLASS ASSIGNMENT Cont…

 Group 6. Theories of curriculum Implementation

 Group 7. Theories of curriculum evaluation
 Group 8. Challenges in curriculum implementation
 Group 9. Analyze the need for national
examinations in any country
 Group 10. Evaluation activities at each stage of
the curriculum development processes
Figure 1: Curriculum
 Levels of Curriculum Development

 Takes place in three levels

 School/Institutional
 Regional
 National levels
 Implementation Process

1. Dissemination – conveying new ideas

about the curriculum in order to prepare
people to consider and agree on the
proposed changes
 Implementation Cont…

2. Staff Development/Preparation/in-
servicing of the implementers: teachers,
administrators and other education
personnel.
 This
is done through seminars,
workshops and courses for up-dating
knowledge and required skills.
3. Diffusion – the means used to ensure that the
teachers utilize the curriculum materials. This is
achieved through:
i. Syllabus –
ii. Conferences and workshops
i. Mass media
ii. Examinations
iii. Using textbooks approved by subject
panels
iv. Orientation of general public
4. Provision of instructional Materials, facilities
and equipment
 These should be adequate
5. Introduction of necessary organizational
changes
 Involves provision of new quality assurance
officers/field officers and trained teachers.
The timetable needs to be re-organized to
reflect the new changes
6. Instituting appropriate changes in patterns of
examinations and assessment
 Assists in evaluating the set objectives
 Thenew curriculum may require a change in
assessment and examination systems
7. Utilization of the Curriculum
 The most important stage and requires
support through provision of materials,
training programs etc.
 Atthis stage Monitoring and evaluation is
done; Both formative and summative
evaluation is crucial.
 AGENTS OF CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

 People involved in curriculum implementation

 Teachers
 Quality assurance and standards officers
 KICD centre
 TSC
 KNEC
 Faculties of Education at Universities
 Teacher Unions
 Teachers Advisory Centres
 PTA
 Non Government Organizations
 Professional associations
 CURRICULUM EVALUATION

Meaning of Evaluation
 Evaluation,simply described, is the process of
establishing the extent to which the
objectives of a programme have been
achieved.
 EVALUATION cont….

 “Anobjective process for determining the

performance of a programme.” Thus,
evaluation is a judgemental process, aimed at
decision – making.
 Doll(1992) also defines evaluation as a broad
and continuous effort to inquire into the effects
of utilizing educational content and process to
meet clearly defined goals.
 EVALUATION cont….

 “Evaluation is a process of collection

and provision of data for the sake of
facilitating decision making at various
stages of curriculum development.
(Shiundu & Omulando, 1992, p. 185)
 EVALUATION cont….

Thus, curriculum evaluation refers

to the process of collecting data in
a systematic manner for the
purpose of assessing quality,
effectiveness and worth of a
programme.
Assessment, Measurement and Testing in relation to Evaluation

 The above four terms are closely related. It is

necessary for you to be able to distinguish
between them.
Assessment: is that process which will show
whether there has been a change in students
behaviour. (Note: Learning can be defined as
change of behaviour in a desired direction).
 Assessment, Measurement and
Testing

Measurement: is the means of determining

the degree of achievement of a particular
objective or competency.
 Ittherefore refers to the determination of the
actual educational outcomes and comparing
these with intended outcomes as expressed in
the objectives of the programme.
 Assessment, Measurement and
Testing

 Testing,on the other hand is the use of

instruments for measuring achievement.
 Measurement and testing are ways and tools
of collecting information for assessment and
evaluation.
 Assessment, Measurement and
Testing
Evaluation: In the above context
is the process of giving value
judgement based on the
information gathered through
measurement and testing.
 Assessment, Measurement and
Testing

 What is monitoring? It is the

continuous review of progress of
planned activities.
 Put
differently, it is the routine, daily,
weekly or monthly assessment of
ongoing activities and progress.
 Monitoring focuses on what is being
done.
 Purposes of the Evaluation

Evaluation should serve the following

purposes:
 a) Individual Students
 To discover what the students have
learnt (knowledge, skills, attitudes and
adjustment etc.)
 Purposes of the Evaluation
Cont…

 The child status in class.

 To discover where the child needs help, the
nature of the help, his/her areas of strength.
 Data necessary to guide each child’s all round
growth and development.
 Purposes of the Evaluation
Cont…

b) Classroom Purposes
 Evaluation should provide data enabling the
teacher to determine the effectiveness of
teaching.
 It should help in answering questions such as:
 Which of the objectives have been achieved?
 Purposes of the Evaluation
Cont…

 Are the methods and activities relevant and

practicable?
 Is re-teaching necessary?

c) Curriculum Materials
 Are they relevant, usable, appropriate and
affordable?
 Purposes of the Evaluation
Cont…

d) Schools - Wide Purposes

 Asses the overall effectiveness of the
institutional programme.
 Reveal over and under- emphasis in
individual classrooms.
 Reveal learning areas needing more attention
throughout the school.
 Purposes of the Evaluation
Cont…

 Assist the school administration and staff in

planning for institutional improvement.
 Provide data useful for school wide guidance
programme.
 Purposes of the Evaluation
Cont…

e) Community
 What are the attitudes and inputs of the
community to the curriculum and to the
curriculum development process?
 Purposes of the Evaluation
Cont…

 Essentially, evaluation ensures that strengths

and weaknesses are detected at an early
stage thus saving time, resources and
frustration and increase the chances of
success of a programme.
 Functions of Curriculum Evaluation

 Mainfunction is to facilitate or improve

programmes or projects
 This is done by judging them
 Judgementis made mainly on the basis of
what has been observed
 Reasons for Evaluating Curriculum

 Checkeffectiveness of that particular

programme
 To identify the educational needs/gaps
 To
determine whether acquired skills
knowledge, values and attitudes are desirable
 Reasons Cont…

 To
measure if stated objectives have been
achieved
 Recommend a given curriculum
 To
identify successes and failures of the
curriculum with a view correcting deficiencies
 Reasons Cont…

 Checkon the suitability and the

appropriateness of the curriculum in
answering social needs
 Givefeedback to the planners, learners,
teachers, industry and society
 Provide a rationale for making changes
The Process of Curriculum Evaluation

 These are seven steps

1. Specification of objects being evaluated
2. Specify objectives of evaluation
3. Designing of instruments
 Steps Cont…

4. Collection of data
6. Analysis of data – involves summarizing, and
interpreting the collected data in such a way so as to
answer the evaluations
 Appropriate descriptive measures ( frequencies,
percentage destrubution, means, correlation, etc) and
 Inferential techniques (analysis of variance, chi
square, etc.) should be use to analyze the data
 Steps Cont…

7. Provision of information to policy makers –

writing a report to policy makers
 Purpose of Assessment

 Get feedback of individual students

 For diagnostic purposes
 Grading the students
 Levels of Assessment

 (i) Classroom level

 (ii)
Local level or – zonal, divisional, district
and county levels
 (iii)
National level – national examinations
centrally organized and administered by the
national examination bodies
 Types of Evaluation

Pre-assessment/Diagonostic
 This is the process that helps to
determine whether the students
possess the prerequisite knowledge and
skills to enable them proceed with new
material.
 Pre-assessment/Diagonostic
Cont…

 Thisis useful at the beginning of a new

course; beginning of a new year in school.
 Itis also useful for a new teacher posted in a
class he/she has not handled before.
 Assessment Cont…

Formative Evaluation
 Formation evaluation is that which takes place
during the implementation of a curriculum
project or programme.
 It therefore guides and promotes the
development of the programme, by providing
data for its improvement.
 Formative Evaluation Cont…

 Note: Formative evaluation should take

place at all stages of curriculum
development and implementation.
 Assessment Cont…

Impact evaluation is an aspect of

summative evaluation; it establishes the
impact of the programme on the
beneficiaries or recipients of the
programme, and the community in
general.
 Criteria for Curriculum
Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation can be judged by:

 Consistency of evaluation with objectives of
project;
 comprehensiveness,
 validity and reliability, and
 continuity.
 Criteria Cont…

Consistency with objectives i.e. Curriculum

evaluation should assess and measure the
attainment of the objectives of the curriculum.
 The various levels of learning objectives need
to keep in mind as per blooms taxonomy, i.e.
knowledge; comprehension; application;
analysis; synthesis; and evaluation.
 Criteria Cont…

 Also,the various domains need to be

kept in mind i.e. cognitive, affective and
psychomotor
 Criteria Cont…

Comprehensiveness
To test for comprehensiveness, one could carry
out:
 Anevaluation of the broad administrative and
general aspects of the education systems with
the aim of finding out how good the education
system is; how relevant the programme is.
 Criteria Cont…

 Evaluation pertaining to course improvement

through assessment of instructional methods
instructional materials to establish those that
are satisfactory and those which are not;
 Evaluation related to individuals learners; to
identify their needs and to help one plan
better for the learning process.
 Criteria Cont…

Feedback to the teachers, to find

out how well they are performing;
Evaluation thus serves as a
diagnostic tool for remedial
teaching to improve pupils learning.
 Criteria Cont…

Validity and reliability

Validity: This criterion answers the question
“Do the evaluation instruments used e.g.
examinations and tests measure the function
they are intended to measure?”
Reliability: Consistency with respect to time
i.e. reliable instruments should give same
results when administered at different times.
 Criteria Cont…

Continuity
 Evaluationshould be a continuous process; an
integral part of the curriculum development
process and classroom instruction.
 Hence, provide continuous feedback on
weaknesses and strengths; for remedial
action to be taken.
 Criteria Cont…

Another set of widely shared evaluation

criteria that is applicable in any field are:
 Relevance,Efficiency, Effectiveness,
Impact and Sustainability
 Criteria Cont…

Relevance: This indicates the value of

the intervention or programme in relation
to other Stakeholders need, national
priorities, international partners’ policies,
including the millennium development
goals, National development plans in the
various countries etc.
 Criteria Cont…

Efficiency – answers the question; “Does the

programme use the resources in the most
economical manner to achieve its goals.”
Effectiveness – Is the activity achieving
satisfactory results in relation to stated
objectives?
 Criteria Cont…

Impact – What are the results of the

intervention, intended and unintended; positive
and negative – including social, economic,
environmental effects on individuals,
institutions and communities?
 Criteria Cont…

Sustainability – This addresses the

issue:
“Are the activities and their impact likely
to continue when external support is
withdrawn, and will it be more widely
replicated and adopted.”
 Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Include
Idealism
Realism
Pragmatism
 Existentialism
 Perennialism
 Essentialism
 Progressivism and
 Reconstructionism
 “What is Philosophy?”

 Many sources consider Philosophy to be the

“Search for truth”; Pursuit of wisdom or
knowledge, especially ultimate reality (Oxford
Dictionary).
 “processof liberation from ignorance and
prejudice”.
 Doll (1992: 28) Philosophy has the multifaceted
effect of helping us to:
• Indicate in general what we mean
• Make what we mean more specific and definite
• Develop what we mean into a useful construct.
 Thus, Philosophy is a crucial determinant of curriculum
trends and the curriculum development process by
helping clarify our thought process
 There are two broad categories of
Philosophy: the traditional and modern
philosophies.

 In each of those categories, there are major

Philosophies such as idealism, realism,
pragmatism and existentialism, as well as
educational philosophies arising from those
major philosophies.
 These include perennialism and essentialism
in the traditional category; while
progressivism and reconstructionism fall
under the modern philosophies.
Idealism
 Thisis considered to be one of the oldest
philosophical systems, whose main
proponent was the Greek philosopher Plato.
 Idealismadvocates that ideas constitute
what is real and permanent, i.e. ideas are
the only true reality.
 Idealism
also emphasizes the spiritual
component of man, i.e. man is a spiritual
being.
 Idealism Cont…

 Accordingto this philosophy, education is the

process of development of a person, his/her
conscious and spiritual self.

 Theultimate responsibility for learning rests

with learners.
 The school exists to develop his character,
increase his knowledge and cultivate his
aesthetic taste.

 Teacheris expected to be a model, friend and

guide to the learners.
Realism
 The Realists school of thought can be traced
back to Aristotle, another Greek, as the main
philosopher.
 According to this school, matter or objects
that we see exist by themselves; i.e. they
exist absolutely with or without man.
 In other words, matter is not a construct of
human mind.
 Thefollowing principles are therefore
upheld;
• The principle of independence of matter
• The principle of orderliness of the world behind its
organization. This means that law and order prevail
in the universe.
• The principle of the world as real as discovered by
the scientist.
 Educational Implication of Realism? Following are a Few.

• The ultimate educational aim is achievement

of knowledge of nature and inner workings of
the universe.

• Education is essentially transmission of

inherited culture from one generation to
another.
• Disciplines of curriculum should contain certain
elements of culture.

• Students should learn disciplines to develop

intellectual skills to discover important principles and
theoretical insights.
 There should therefore be a core curriculum
compulsory for every learner.
Pragmatism
 The
main proponent of pragmatism was John
Dewey (1859 -1952).
 Theproponents of pragmatism were reacting
against what they considered to be failures or
shortcomings of the traditional school system,
supported by idealism and realism.
Some of the criticisms were:
(1) traditional curriculum content included a lot of
meaningless and needless content

(2) Traditional curriculum did not give a

Utility Education
(3) The curriculum was rigid and did not cater for
individual needs of particular learners.
 Pragmatists therefore advocated for
reality being considered as instrumental
 Educational implications of Pragmatism

Learning from Experience

 Ifexperience is source of knowledge, it is also
a source of education.
 We learn by doing. However, not every
experience is educative; Experience must be
productive; i.e. produce growth.
 Aim of education is to develop learners’
ability to deal with future problems;
 That is, to develop his intelligence to solve
problems.
 According to Dewey, the process involves
(1) Identifying the problem
(2) Formation of hypothesis(es)
(3) Gathering or collecting data and tools to solve
(4) Testing each hypothesis
(5) Storage of the unity of knowledge to be used
in some of similar situation.
Curriculum: Pragmatists propose a curriculum
based on problems that arise out of daily living.
 School
is therefore an extension of home and
community.
Methods of study
 These should include: problem solving;
activity; projects and group involvement.
 Teachersshould be a resource and guide; thus
motivator.
 Teaching must be childcentred
 For pragmatists, all subjects are vital.
 However sciences were favoured because the
child is able to explore new knowledge.
Existentialism
 According to Akinpelu (1981) Existentialism is defined as
“the philosophy of existence”.
 Sartre (1957) also state that “Man is nothing else but
what he makes of himself ”.
 Man is therefore free to choose the type of life he would
like to live; he is in control of his destiny. He is thus free
to make his choices and be responsible for them.
 Implications
of Existentialism on
Education and Curriculum
 The
main implication is an emphasis on
knowledge and abilities for personal choice.
 Hence, the need to acquire knowledge and
principles of the human
condition; and Acts of choice making.
 The Curriculum should have a broad range of
subject matter from which learners can
choose; i.e. electives.
 Inclusion of subjects that involve human
emotions;
 aesthetics; and also philosophical subjects.
 Most important is that the philosophy tries to
free learners what they are to learn and
believe.
 Thus,
there should be no standard guides for
teachers to follow, given that learners are
unique.
Perennialism
 Perennialism draws from both idealism and
realism.
 The Perennialists believe that the “cement of
education is the common nature of man”
(Doll, 1992:29).
 With that focus, education should be the
same for everyone.
 Education must therefore pursue perennial
truths. These truths are absolute anduniversal.

 Thephilosophy presupposes that there are

permanent studies and knowledge that is
available, particularly from the great books,
which should be taught to all students.
 The stress is on significance of reason and
intellectual development. Curriculum is
expected to contain “important” subjects
taught in their customary separate form
Essentialism
 Aswith perennialism, essentialism is also on
the major traditional philosophies of idealism
and realism.
 Theaim of essentialists education is to
develop intellectual powers, as well as
educating competent persons.
 Schools should therefore not be side tracked
into catering to the personal problems and
social needs of students.
 Cultural heritage needs should be considered
for curriculum making.
 Essential
skills especially Reading, Writing and
Arithmetic (three Rs) and academic subject
 Aswith perennialists, the curriculum is subject
centred and emphasized separate organized
disciplines as opposed to integrated subjects.
 Theteacher in this case is considered an
authority in his/her subject field. Moving from
traditional educational philosophies, let us
now examine more modern ones.
Progressivism
 Progressivismis one of the educational
philosophies originating from pragmatism.

 Hence
all that we discussed earlier about
pragmatism holds true for progressivism.
 Besides Dewey’s contribution, other scholars
in this area include Montessori, Cornelius, and
Raisseau.
 Their
studies and research were geared
towards identifying the most appropriate type
and nature of curriculum for learners.
 Progressivists education seeks to promote
democratic schooling as well as social living.
 The other major emphasis is on a child or learner
centred curriculum.
 The curriculum therefore is based on the
learners interests, needs, abilities and
aspirations, among other characteristics of the
learners.
Progressive education curriculum
emphasized five approaches to the teaching/
learning process, namely:-
• Teacher – pupil planning of curriculum activities
• Flexible curriculum and individualized instruction
• Learner-centred teaching and learning
methodology
• Selection of study material in line with the
expressed interests and concerns of the learner
•Non – formal curriculum activities and
physical training in areas like games, related
hobbies and other co-curricular areas.
 The aim of this form of education is to provide
a learning atmosphere that allows children
maximum self-direction and to reduce teacher
domination in the teaching/learning process.
Reconstructionism
 Reconstructionistshold on to an
anthropological –sociological philosophy that
would put schools in the forefront of remaking
society.
 The aim of the reconstructionists education is
to improve and reconstruct society as need
be; as well as education for change and social
reform.
 Thus,the study of contemporary social
problems become the centrepiece of
curriculum content.
 Thereconstructionists believe that resources
are available to solve these problems and the
education profession could be the catalyst to
prepare and organize future generation to
make this possible
 Reconstructionistsuse multiple teaching
materials and they consider inclusion of
subject matter that would be useful to serve
the central cause of the issue of concern.
 Planningof the curriculum often involves
various stakeholders including learners,
parents and community leaders.
Sociological Foundations
 The Sociological Foundation refers to issues
from society that have an influenceon
curriculum.
 Since the school exists within a given society;
and the fact that the ‘products’ of the school
i.e. the ‘graduates’ go back to the society,
makes the latter an inevitable determinant of
the curriculum.
 There are many aspects of the society that need
consideration in curriculum making.

These include:
 Changes occurring in societal structures;
 Transmission of culture;
 social problems as issues
 for Curriculum and Economics issues.
Societal changes
 Changes that occur in the wider society and
culture have an influence on curriculum.
Changes include:
 • Family life disintegration in many of our African
countries and globally;
 which forces the schools to take on more
responsibilities previously
 assumed by the family.
 • Movements of the population, for instance, rural-
urban migration.
Transmission of Culture
 Culture in any society incorporates valued
traditions. In this context, curriculum can be
considered to be a reflection or a piece of the
culture
 These traditions include those in the wider
society as well as traditions upheld in the school
system.
 Influence of various Interest Groups.
 Certaingroups who have an influence on
school curriculum include: Parents, religious
groups such as churches, Donors, Trade
Unions such as the Kenya National Union of
Teachers, Boards of Governors and the media.
 Each of these groups has certain values that
they would want incorporated into the
curriculum.

 As much as possible, their inputs should be

considered to ensure their support in
curriculum implementation.
Social Problems as issues for curriculum
 Everysociety battles with certain issues that
have an influence on curriculum.
These include:
• Equality and Equity issues; such as class
systems in society; racial or ethnic issues;
Gender; issues of access to education and
equality of opportunity.
 Factorsthat affect equality of opportunity
include financing of education, fees payments
and distances to schools.
 Crime, Delinquency and Security issues: The
curriculum would need to focus on
knowledge, fairness and avoidance of the
issues raised.
Health Issues: Health challenges in many parts
of the world currently
 includeHIV/Aids, Drug abuse, pollution and
other environmental issues, family life
education including Birth control and family
planning.
Economic Issues. There is need to incorporate in
the curriculum knowledge, skills and attitudes
that would facilitate economic growth at a
personal and national levels
Political Dimension of Curriculum
 It is important to acknowledge that education
is essentially a political activity.
 The political climate prevailing in a country is
very important and significant in determining
the type of schooling and curriculum for the
young.
 Education also has a political function; in that it
promotes ideologies which influence the power
structure within society.
 Itis noteworthy also that political forces, the
most powerful of which are associated with the
government of the time, are responsible for
allocation of resources that are necessary to
support a curriculum.
 Hence, the need to take the politicians views
into consideration in curriculum planning.
 In addition, a curriculum worker is also likely
to have a political and ideological stand in life
that would influence his/her decision making
process in curriculum matters. (Shiundu &
Omulando, 1992: 57).
Psychological Foundations of Curriculum
 Welcome to this section on psychological
foundations of curriculum.
 The Psychological Foundations focus on
insights gained from the field of psychology
that have a bearing on the learning process,
and consequently on the curriculum.
Psychology of learning
 Helps us to know:
- whether the children have developed
adequately to be able to understand
certainconcepts. i.e. Ed. Psychology enables us
to follow the development of children e.g. lower
primary – children are at concrete stage.
- Methodology should be such that you have to
use real objects to help them understand.
Use of Psychology of learning in selecting
objectives:
- Helps to identify and select those goals that
are feasible from those that will likely take a
very long time – and are almost impossible to
attain depending on the age level.
-
 Enables us to determine the length of time
required for the attainment of a particular
objective and the age levels at which learning
will take place most efficiently; considering
also the students.
- To determine the conditions necessary for the
learning of certain types of objectives.
- Helps us to realize that most learning
experiences produce multiple outcomes.
- Learning which are consistent with each other,
which are in that sense integrated and
coherent, reinforce each other.
END