Information Processing Theory

4.2.1. Basic elements: Sensory register , short-

term memory/store, long term
memory/store

4.2.2. Educational implications of information

processing theory
4.2.1. Basic elements: Sensory register , short-term memory/store,
long term memory/store
• The information processing theory relies on the computer as a model for human
learning.
• Psychologists found that they could draw an analogy ( comparison) between the
information processing of computers and of human being.
• Like the computers, the human mind takes in information, performs operations on it
to change its form and content and stores it, and it generates responses to it.
• Thus, information processing involves gathering information and organizing it in
relation to what is already known, or encoding; holding information or storage; and
getting the information when needed, or retrieval.
• The whole system is guided by control processes that determine how and when
information will flow through the system.
• This analogy has given birth to one of the most significant developments in modern
psychology-the information processing theory.
Contd..
• Information processing theorists approach learning primarily
through a study of memory.
• According to this theory, thinking is connected with the
information one receives from the environment through one’s
senses.
• The nature of the thought process depends on how it is utilized
by the individual from the time he perceives it until the time he
processes it in solving his problem or in developing a strategy.
• This theory identifies a series of steps in the way we process
the information.
Contd..
• The following figure is a representation of a typical information
processing model. In the figure, three boxes depict cognitive structures
where information may be held and transferred. The arrows indicate
the flow of information. The rectangle at the top of the figure
represents control process that affect the flow of information through
the system. In order to understand this model, let’s examine each
element.
1. Sensory Register
• Stimuli from the environment (sights, sounds, smells, etc.) bombard ( attack with
bombs/direct) our receptors. Receptors are the components of the sensory system
for seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and feeling.
• The whole system of receptors is called the sensory register.
• Sensory register is the initial processing that transforms those incoming stimuli
into transformation so we can make sense of them.
• Eventhough sights and sounds may last only fraction of a second, the information
that represent those sensations are briefly held in the sensory register so that this
initial processing can take place.
• The sensory register held information about the stimuli very briefly after the
actual stimulus had left.
Contd..
• The information content of sensory memory resembles the sensations from the original
stimulus.
• Visual sensations are coded briefly by the sensory register as images and auditory sensations
as sound patterns.
• It may be noted that other senses also have their own codes.
• Thus, for a second or so, a wealth of data from sensory experience remains intact. (
full/complete)
• In these moments, we have a chance to select and organize information for further
processing.
• However, perception and attention are critical at this stage.
• Perception refers to the meaning we attach to the information received through our senses.
• Similarly, paying attention is very important in learning.
• Students cannot process information that they do not recognize or perceive.
• Many factors in the classroom influence student attention.
• Eye catching actions can draw attention at the beginning of a lesson.
2. Short term memory (STM)
• When a bit of information is selected for further processing, it is transferred from
the sensory register into short-term memory system.
• Short term memory (STM) is the working memory holding a limited amount of
information briefly.
• The duration of information in the short term memory is short.
• Early experiments suggested that the capacity of the short-term memory was
only 5 to 9 separate new items at once.
• This limitation can be overcome using strategies such as chunking or grouping,
but 5 to 9 limit generally holds true in everyday life.
• It is quite common to remember a new phone number after looking it up.
Contd..
• The short term memory is sometimes known as the working memory.
• Working memory includes both temporary storage and active processing where
active mental effort is applied to new and old information.
• It contains what we are thinking at the moment.
• For this reason some psychologists consider the short-term memory to be
synonymous with ‘consciousness’.
• STM is a stage of memory with limited capacity in which information-often stored
in codes-is lost rapidly unless it is rehearsed. The capacity of STM can be
expanded by increasing the amount of information in each chunk to be learned.
But no matter how good a job we do of chunking or rehearsing, STM is not a
good place to store information for long periods of time. Such information must
be transferred to long term memory for more permanent storage.
3. Long term memory (LTM)
• Information enters in short term memory quickly. But more time and a bit of effort are
required to move information into long-term memory (LTM).
• LTM is the storehouse for information that must be kept for long periods of time.
• The capacity of short-term memory is limited.
• The capacity of long term memory appears to be unlimited for all practical purposes.
• In addition, once information is securely stored in LTM, it apparently remains there
permanently.
• Theoretically, we should be able to remember as much as we want for as long as we
want.
• Of course, the problem is to find the right information when it is needed.
• Our access to information in short term memory is immediate-what we are thinking at
the very moment.
• But access to information in long term memory requires time and effort.
Contd..
• Recently, some psychologists have suggested that there are not two separate
memory stores (short term and long term).
• Rather short term memory is the part of long-term memory that processes
currently activated information- so short term memory is more about processing
than storage.
• Most cognitive psychologists distinguish two categories of long term memory,
explicit and implicit, with subdivisions under each category as shown in the
following figure ;
Categories of long term memory

Long term meory

Explicit memory Implicit memory

( Conscious) ( Unconscious)

Classical
Semantic memory Procedural memory Priming ( Implicit
Episodic memory conditioning effects
(Facts, general ( motor skills, activation of
( Own experience) ( conditioned
knowledge) habits, rules) concepts in LTM)
emotional reactions)
a) Explicit memory
• Explicit memory is knowledge from LTM that can be recalled and consciously considered.
We are aware of these memories-we know we have remembered them.
• Explicit memories can be either i) semantic or ii) episodic memory.
i) Semantic memory
Semantic memory is the memory of meaning. It is very important in schools for meaning
including words, facts, theories, and concept.
• These memories are not tied to particular experiences and are stored as propositions, images
and schemas.
1. Propositions
• A proposition is the smallest unit of knowledge that can be judged true or false.
• The statement, ‘Sangita borrowed the antique ( ancient/old ) tablecloth’ has two propositions.
a) Sangita borrowed the tablecloths. b) The tablecloth is antique.
• Propositions that share information such as the two above are linked in what cognitive
psychologists call propositional networks.
• It is the meaning not the exact words that is stored in the network.
2. Images
• Images are representations based on the structure or appearance of the information.
• As we form images, we try to remember or recreate the physical attributes and spatial (connected
with space) of information.
• Images are useful in making many practical decisions such as how a sofa might look in our living
room.
3. Schemas
• Propositions and images are fine for representing single ideas and relationships, but often our
knowledge about a topic combines images and propositions.
• To explain this kind of complex knowledge, psychologists developed the idea of a schema.
• Schemas are abstract knowledge structures that organize vast amount of information.
• It is pattern or guide for representing an event, concept, or skill.
• When we hear the sentence, ‘Sangita borrowed the antique tablecloth.’, you know even more about it
than the two propositions. This is because you have schemas about borrowing, tablecloth, and
antiques. You know without being told, for example, that the lender does not have the tablecloth now,
and Sangita has an obligation to return to the tablecloth to the lender.
• None of this information is explicitly stated, but it is part of our schema for the meaning of ‘borrow’.
ii) Episode memory
• The second kind of explicit memory is episodic.
• Episodic memory is the kind of long term memory that stores information about
experiences that took place at specific times and in specific places.
• It is about events that we have experienced so we often can explain when the
event happened.

b) Implicit memories
• Implicit memory is knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling, but that
influences behaviour or thought without our awareness.
• These different kind of memory are associated with different parts of the brain.
• There are three kinds of implicit or out of awareness memories; i) classical
conditioning effect, ii) procedural memory, and iii) priming effects.
i) Classical conditioning effect
• In classical conditioning effect, some out of awareness memories may cause us to feel
anxious as we take a test or make our heart (beat) rate increase when you see a doctor
injecting a patient.
ii) Procedural memory
• The second type of implicit memory is memory for skills, habits, and how to do things
called procedural memory. It may take a while to learn a procedure –such as cooking,
riding a bicycle, etc. Once learned, this knowledge tends to be remembered for a long
time. The more we practice the procedure, the more automatic the action and the more
implicit the memory will be.
iii) Priming
• Priming activates information that already is in long term memory through some out-
of-awareness process. For example, while filling in the gap: Me_ _ _ _ If you wrote ‘
memory’ instead of ‘mentor’ or ‘member’ or other words, then priming may have
played a role because the word ‘memory’ has occurred many times in this chapter.
Priming may be the fundamental process for retrieval as associations are activated and
Differences between STM(working memory) and LTM
1. Input : Information enters in STM very quickly whereas more time and a bit of
effort are required to move information into long term memory.
2. Capacity : The capacity of STM is limited, whereas the capacity of LTM
appears to be unlimited.
3. Retrieval : Our access to information in STM is immediate because we are
thinking about the information at that very moment but access to information in
LTM requires LTM.
4. Duration : The duration of information in short-term memory is short whereas
the duration of information in LTM is long.
5. Forgetting : Information stored in STM is lost rapidly whereas the information
stored in LTM is durable and permanent.
Educational implications of information processing theory
1. Gain the students’ attention.
• Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin like voice projection to indicate you are
beginning a lesson.
2. Bring to mind relevant prior learning.
• Revise on the previous day’s lesson.
3. Emphasize important information.
• Provide handouts or write on the board.
4. Information organized properly.
• Use logical sequence to concepts and skills.
• Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.
5. Show students how to chunk information.
• Present information in categories.
• Teach inductive reasoning.
Contd..
6. Give opportunities to students to elaborate on new information.
• Connect new information to something already known.
• Look for similarities and differences among concepts.
• Have group discussions.
7. Show students how to use coding when memorizing lists.
• Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method, acronyms and etc.
8. Give opportunity for repetition of learning.
• State important points several times in different ways during presentation of
information (STM).
• Have items on each day’s lesson from previous lesson (LTM)
9. Give opportunities to learn important concepts/skills.
• Drill on important facts daily.
Thank you so much