CORRELATION RESEARCH TOOLS

TYPICAL CORRELATIONAL AND

COMPARATIVE RESEARCH MEASURING
TOOLS
• 1. Correlations
 Pearson (parametric data) – most commonly applied correlation
method
Kendall’s tau
Spearman
Chi-square (nonparametric data)

*Parametric (Interval or ratio- scaled)

* Non-parametric (Ordinal and Nominal variables)
• 2. t- Test (paired samples, independent
samples t-test)
 for independent samples t-test, the grouping
variable should be two categories only.
• 3. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
 post hoc (Tukey – equal variance assumed) or
(Tamhane – equal variance not assumed) and
homogeneity of variances test (Levene statistic).
For post hoc, the factor should have at least
categories
• 4. Scales reliability test
 interval or ratio scaled data – Cronbach’s alpha
5. Factor analysis
6. Normality analysis
7. Multiple regression analysis
CORRELATIO
NS
Two variables are measured at a time (bivariate)
In stating the correlations of more than 2 variables, the word
“between” is used instead of “among” because the
correlation is measured between variables at a time
(bivariate).

Example: (Null hypothesis)

• There are no significant correlations between Quality
Education (variable 1), Qualified Faculty (variable 2)
and Better School Facilities (variable 3).
 PEARSON r
(Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient r)
 commonly used to test the relationship between variables that
are quantitative in nature (either interval or ratio scale)

Meanwhile,
* Spearman rho or Kendall’s tau – are common statistical tools
used to measure the relationship between variables at the ordinal
scale.
• * Chi – square test – is commonly used for
significance of relationship.

• *Phi and Cramer’s V – are alternative statistics if

one wants to know only the significance but also
the strength of relationship between two nominal
data.
THE PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
• The correlation coefficient is the single number that
represents the degree of relation between two variables.
• The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient
(symbolized by r) is the most common measure of
correlation; researchers calculate it when both the X
variable and the Y variable are interval or ration scale
measurements. Mathematically, it can be defined as the
average of the cross-products of z-scores.
• The raw score formula for r is:

SMITH/DAVIS (C) 2005 PRENTICE HALL

THE RANGE OF R VALUES

• The Range of r – correlation

coefficients can range in value
from -1.00 to +1.00.
• A correlation of -1.00
indicates a perfect negative
correlation between the two
variables of interest. That is,
whenever there is an increase
of one unit in one variable,
there is always the same
proportional decrease in the
other variable.
THE RANGE OF R VALUES

• The Range of r – correlation

coefficients can range in value
from -1.00 to +1.00.
• A zero correlation means there is
little or no relation between the
two variables. That is, as scores on
one variable increase, scores on
the other variable may increase,
decrease, or not change at all.
THE RANGE OF R VALUES
• The Range of r – correlation
coefficients can range in value
from -1.00 to +1.00.
• Perfect positive correlation
occurs when you have a value
of +1.00 and as we see an
increase of one unit in one
variable, we always see a
proportional increase in the
other variable.
• The existence of a perfect
correlation indicates there are
no other factors present that
influence the relation we are
measuring. This situation rarely
occurs in real life.
SMITH/DAVIS (C) 2005 PRENTICE HALL
INTERPRETING CORRELATION
COEFFICIENTS
• Statistically significant results mean that a research
result occurred rarely by chance.
• If the correlation you calculate is sufficiently large that it
would occur rarely by chance, then you have reason to
believe that these two variables are related.
• The standard by which significance in psychology is
determined is at the .05 level.
• That is, a result is significant when it occurs by chance 5
times out of a hundred.
• Researchers who are more caution may choose to adopt
a .01 level of significance.
 EFFECT SIZE
• Even though statistical significance is an important
component of psychological research, it may not tell us
very much about the magnitude of our results.
• Effect size refers to the size or magnitude of the effect
an independent variable (IV) produced in an experiment
or the size or magnitude of a correlation.
• Effect size calculation is important because,
unfortunately, a research result can be significant and
yet the effect size may be quite small.
• An example of this situation occurs as sample size gets
larger, the critical value needed to achieve significance
becomes smaller.
 EFFECT SIZE
• To calculate the effect size for the Pearson product-
moment correlation, all you have to do is square the
correlation coefficient.
• r2 is known as the coefficient of determination.
• Multiply the coefficient of determination by 100 and
you will see what percentage of the variance is
accounted for by the correlation.
• The higher r2 becomes, the more variance is
accounted for by the relation between the two
variables under study.
• Lower r2 values indicate that factor, other than the
two variables of interest are influencing the relation
in which we are interested.
PEARSON R/ PEARSON PRODUCT -
MOMENT CORRELATION
 Direct relationship

 Ho : There is no significant relationship

between score in Math and score in
Physics

 H1 : There is significant relationship

between score in Math and score in
DATA
Student # Score in Math (IV) Score in Physics (DV)
1 90 100
2 95 96
3 90 98
4 100 100
5 65 68
6 90 91
7 88 89
8 75 76
9 90 87
10 85 85
11 82 82
12 80 80
13 92 93
14 90 88
15 85 80
STEPS
Open SPSS IN USING PEARSON r THROUGH SPSS

Click File

New

Data
Click Variable
View

Type in
ScoreMath &
ScorePhysics

*** Note: in typing the

variables, there should
be no space in between.
Click
Data
View

Enter
Data
 Click
Analyze

Correlate

Bivariate
 Highlight
ScoreMath &
ScorePhysics

Drag to
Variables

Click Options
• *** Note:

Pearson r

• Two- tailed
Flag
significant
correlations
Check mean and
standard
deviation

Continue

Ok

Result
RESULT:

Sig. (2-
tailed) =
0.000
INTERPRETATION:
 Stat test: Pearson r
 α = 0.05
 Tail = 2 tailed
 Result: Computed Pearson r = 0.913
 Sig = ρ value = 0.000

 Decision:
Reject Ho • Rule # 1 : If sig ˂ 0.05

Reject Ho • Rule # 2: If sig = 0.05

Accept Ho • Rule # 3: If sig ˃ 0.05

DECISION:
• Reject Ho

• Conclusion:
• * There is significant relationship between score
in Math and score in Physics.

• Implications:
• * Better background in Mathematics would lead
to better performance in Physics.
Analyze

Pearson
Correlat
e
Bivaria

r
te

Drag

Pearso
nr

Option

Ok
TABLE OF CORRELATIONS INTERPRETATION

Range of Coefficient Description

From To
+ 0.81 + 1.00 Very Strong

+ 0.61 + 0.80 Strong

+ 0.41 + 0.60 Moderate

+ 0.21 + 0.40 Weak

+ 0.01 + 0.20 Weak to No Correlation

END