LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Lateral Liquid Pressure

The pressure at any depth below the surface of a liquid (that is in a state
of hydrostatic equilibrium i.e. no flow) is same in all directions and
increases linearly with depth.

Lateral pressure, σ’h = γw z

Resultant Lateral pressure or Lateral thrust, Pw = 1/2 γwh2
Where, γw = unit weight of liquid 1
Lateral Earth Pressure
In case of soil and other granular materials, due to internal frictional
resistance between particles, the magnitude of the lateral pressure is
equal to the vertical pressure multiplied by a coefficient, which
depends on the following factors;
1. Shear strength characteristics
2. Lateral strain conditions
3. Pore-water pressure, which depends on the drainage conditions,
4. State of equilibrium of the soil mass, which depends on the magnitude
and nature of relative displacement and the interaction between the
soil and the retaining wall.

There are two common states of equilibrium.

a- Elastic equilibrium, A body is said to be in a state of elastic equilibrium

when a small change in stress produces a corresponding change in
strain.
b- Plastic equilibrium, In case of plastic equilibrium irreversible strains
take place at constant stress. It may be assumed that a mass of soil
under increasing stress will remain in a state of elastic equilibrium until
the plastic yielding (failure) condition is reached.
2
 The relative displacements or strain conditions relating to earth
pressure studies have the following three categories:
1- At rest state: elastic equilibrium with no lateral displacement or strain
(no wall movement).
2- Active state: plastic equilibrium with lateral expansion taking place
(wall moving away from the soil fill).
3- Passive state: plastic equilibrium with lateral contraction taking place
(wall moving towards the soil fill).

1. Earth pressure at rest

When the soil mass is not subjected to any lateral strain or movement, the
lateral pressure exerted is known as pressure at rest. This happens when
the retaining wall is firmly fixed at the top and is not allowed to move
laterally. Following are the practical examples.

1. Basement retaining walls which are restrained at the top by the

basement slab.
2. Bridge abutment walls which are restrained at the top by the bridge
slab.
3. Underground water tank walls which are restrained at the top by the
roof slab.
4. Under natural conditions of deposition there is a negligible amount of
lateral strain, and the soil mass is said to be in the at-rest state. 3
 For the above conditions, yielding does not occur and the soil mass
remains in a state of elastic equilibrium. In this case the stress state in soil
mass is below the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope (or critical state line).
The horizontal effective stress σ/h corresponding to the vertical effective
stress σ/v at any point is therefore given by the equation below:

σ/h = Ko σ/v

The value of Ko depends on the loading/unloading history and the

relative density of the soil. For normally consolidated soils Jaky (1944)
proposed a relationship, which correlates well with the values observed by
Bishop, 1958; and Brooker and Ireland, 1965. The relationship is as follows,

Ko = 1 -sin φ/c
Where φ/c= the ultimate or critical state value of φ/

4
 Ko increases to about 1.0 for lightly over-consolidated soil and
increases further with the over-consolidation ratio (Roc):
Ko(oc) = Ko(nc)√(Roc)

5
Using a self-boring pressure-meter (Mair and Wood, 1987), the in-situ
horizontal total stress and pore pressure can be measured and thus an
estimate for the value of Ko can be made. Typical values for Ko are given in
Table;
Table: Range of values for Ko
_____________________________
Type of soil Ko
Loose sand 0.45-0.6
Dense sand 0.3-0.5
NC clay 0.5-0.7
OC clay 1.0-4.0
Compacted clay 0.7-2.0

6
2. Plastic equilibrium and Rankine's theory
The at-rest circles shown in figure represent a stress state which is below
that required for slip failure. With lateral yielding, however, σ /h will either,
increase or decrease, with a corresponding change in the diameter of the
Mohr circle (AB or BC).
With lateral expansion, the state of plastic equilibrium (failure) is reached at
the minimum value of σ/h, and the strain state is Active state. Lateral
expansion occurs when the wall moves away from the fill, and the lateral
pressure is known as active earth pressure.

With lateral contraction, the failure occur due to formation slip plane giving
a maximum value of σ/h. Lateral contraction occurs when the wall moves
towards the fill, and the lateral pressure is known as passive earth
pressure.

In both of these cases the shearing resistance of the soil is fully mobilised.
Rankine (1857) called these the active and the passive states respectively.

The magnitude of σ/h depends only on the shear strength of the soil and the
vertical effective stress, and thus the problem is statically determinate, i.e.
no account is required to be taken of the magnitude of displacement.
7
Consider a mass of homogeneous cohesionless soil of semi-infinite extent
that has an angle of internal friction of φ/. At a given point below a
horizontal surface the effective stresses may be taken as:

Vertical stress, σ/v = σ/1

Horizontal stress, σ/h = σ/3

The Mohr circles representing the two possible states of plastic

equilibrium both touch the failure envelope, since they each relate to a
limiting condition.

Points A and C represent the conjugate limiting lateral stresses for the
active and passive states respectively.

OA = σ/ha = active lateral pressure

OC = σ/hp = passive lateral pressure

Lateral expansion will lead to σ/ha < σ/v

Lateral contraction will lead to σ/hp > σ/v

8
RANKINE EARTH PRESSURE THOERY
Many investigators proposed theories, while others published refinements
to those theories for the solutions to earth pressure problems and design
of earth retaining structures. Coulomb's and Rankine's theories are
however the widely accepted and are referred to as classical earth
pressure theories which are commonly used for computing lateral earth
pressure against retaining structures.
The basic concept of Rankine's theory can be best explained by drawing
Mohr's circles for the state of stresses involved in retained mass of soil
behind a retaining structure.

ACTIVE PRESSURE
Consider the element of soil shown in figure-1. The element is subjected to
geostatic stresses denoted by 1 = h acting vertically and 3 acting
horizontally. If the wall moves away from the fill (active pressure case) the
element will expand laterally and compress vertically. The value of 1 will
be greater and will be considered the major principal stress. The
corresponding Mohr's circle is shown in figure-2.

9
For Cohesion-less Soil

10
Figure – 2 Mohr circle for horizontal and vertical stress

11
 ABC is a right angle triangle, sin = BC/AB
Sin =

 1   3 / 2  1   3

( 1   3 ) / 2 1  3
Sin 1 + sin 3 = 1-3

3+3 sin = 1-1 sin

3(1+sin) = 1(1- sin)

 1  sin  
3 = 1  1  sin   = 1 ka = hka
 

The pressure varies linearly with depth as shown in figure-2. The

corresponding resultant active pressure on the retaining structure is
given by.

12
Pa = 1/2(Hka)H = 1/2(H2ka)
The point of application of the resultant is H/3 (for triangular variation)
above the base of the retaining wall. 13
For (C-) Soil

BC
Sin 
AB
14
 1   3
2 1   3
sin   
1  3 2C cot    1   3
C cot  
2
2 C cot  sin  + 1 sin  + 3 sin  = 1-3

3+3 sin  = 1 - 1 sin  - 2 C cot  sin 

3 (1 + sin ) = 1 (1 -sin ) -2 C cos 

 1  sin   cos 
 3  1    2C
 1  sin   1  sin 

Since
cos  1  sin 

1  sin  1  sin 
15
 3 =1 ka -2 C ka

For C- soil the horizontal thrust on the wall at any depth 'h' below the
ground surface is given by

3 = h = hka - 2C ka

The equation has two components; the first component 'hka' varies
linearly with depth and is a function of h. The second component 2C ka,
remains constant with depth. To find the resultant pressure, it is better to
draw the pressure distribution diagram.
The resultant pressure, therefore is given by

Pa = ½  H2 ka -2 C ka H

The point of application of the resultant pressure will be determined by

the geometry of the diagram shown in figure (3).

16
Figure – 5 Pressure distribution diagram
17
The resultant pressure, therefore is given by

Pa = ½H2Ka-2CHKa

The point of application of the resultant pressure will be determined by the

geometry of the diagram shown in figure (5). Since soil cannot resist
tension, the active pressure will be equal to the area of the +ve pressure
diagram only.

18
DETERMINATION OF POINT OF ZERO EARTH PRESSURE
-2CKa
C D

H-H1

H1

A B

HKa-2CKa

From similar triangles OAB and OCD

19
 OA AB

OD DC
H1 Hk a  2C k a

H  H1 2C k a

H 1 (2C k a ) ( H  H 1 )(Hk a  2C k a )

H 1 (2C k a ) H 2 k a  2CH k a  H 1 Hk a  2CH 1 k a

2CH 1 k a  H 1 Hk a  2CH 1 k a H 2 ka  2CH k a

H 1 Hk a H 2 ka  2CH k a
H 2 ka  2CH k a
H1 
Hka
H 2 ka 2CH k a
H1  
Hka Hka
20
 2C
H1 H 
 ka
2C
H  H1 
 ka
2C
The depth of negative pressure (tension zone) = Z
 ka
In case of pure clayey soil  = 0, therefore ka = 1

2C
H  H 1 Z 


PASSIVE PRESSURE
Consider the element of soil shown in figure-6. The element is subjected
to geostatic stresses denoted by 1 = h acting vertically and 3 acting
horizontally. If the wall moves towards the fill (passive pressure case) the
element will contract laterally and expand vertically. The value of 3 will
be greater and will be considered the major principal stress. The
corresponding Mohr's circle is shown in figure-7.
21
For Cohesion-less Soil

Wall movement Ground surface heaves up.

Retained soil mass

compressed laterally.

Rupture surface

Shape after wall

Original shape of movement
soil element

22
Figure – 7 Mohr circle for horizontal and vertical stress
23
 ABC is a right angle triangle, sin = BC/AB
Sin =
 3   1 / 2  3   1

( 1   3 ) / 2 1  3
Sin 1 + sin 3 = 3 - 1

1+1 sin = 3-3 sin

1(1+sin) = 3(1- sin)

3 = 1
 1  sin   = 1 kp = hkp
 1  sin  
 

The pressure varies linearly with depth as shown in figure-8. The

corresponding resultant active pressure on the retaining structure is
given by.

24
 Figure -8 Pressure distribution diagram

Pa = 1/2(Hkp)H = 1/2(H2kp)
The point of application of the resultant is H/3 (for triangular variation)
above the base of the retaining wall.
25
For (C-) Soil

Figure – 9 Mohr circle for horizontal and vertical stress

26
 BC
Sin 
AB
 3  1
2  3  1
sin   
1  3 2C cot    1   3
C cot  
2
2 C cot  sin  + 1 sin  + 3 sin  = 3 - 1

1+1 sin  + 2 C cot  sin  = 3 - 3 sin 

1 (1 + sin ) + 2 C cos  = 3 (1 -sin )

Since
cos  1  sin 

1  sin  1  sin 
3 = 1 kp +2 C kp
For C- soil the horizontal thrust on the wall at any depth 'h' below the
ground surface is given by
3 = h = hkp + 2C kp
27
The equation has two components; the first component 'hkp' varies
linearly with depth and is a function of h. The second component 2C kp,
remains constant with depth. To find the resultant pressure, it is better to
draw the pressure distribution diagram.
The resultant pressure, therefore is given by
Pa = ½  H2 kp + 2 C kp H
The point of application of the resultant pressure will be determined by the
geometry of the diagram shown in figure (10).
2CKp

+ + 2CKp H

H/2

1/2H2Kp

H/3

2CKp
Figure – 10 Pressure
HKp
distribution diagram 28
The resultant pressure, therefore is given by:

Pp = ½H2Kp+2CHKp

The point of application of the resultant pressure will be determined by the

geometry of the diagram shown in figure (5). Since soil cannot resist
tension, the active pressure will be equal to the area of the +ve pressure
diagram only.

29
 Drained and undrained cohesive soils

Drained conditions
Original Rankine's equation was developed to determine lateral pressures
in granular (i.e. frictional) materials, and cohesion was not considered. For
undrained conditions and for overconsolidated soils, however, the shear
strength is expressed wholly or partly in terms of the apparent cohesion (c u
or c') and φu is zero.

Undrained conditions
Equations derived already are applicable to drained loading and thus the
long-term condition of limiting plastic equilibrium.

For undrained (short-term) equilibrium problems in saturated soils, the

angle of friction φu = 0 and so Ka = Kp = 1, so that the lateral total pressures
are:

Active pressure, σha = σv - 2cu

Passive pressure, σhp = σv + 2cu

30
 Lateral pressure on retaining walls:
Drained conditions
Figure shows a wall with a smooth vertical back retaining a mass of soil
which has a horizontal unloaded surface.

31
 From Rankine's theory:
At any depth z, σ/ha = Ka σv' = Kaγ'z
Where γ' = effective bulk unit weight of the soil
= γ (above the water table)
= γ' = γ'sat. – γw (below the water table)

At the base of the wall, i.e. where z = H, σ/ha = Kaγ'H

The resultant active thrust on the wall is given by the area of the
pressure distribution diagram and acts through the centre of gravity of
its area:

Resultant active thrust, Pa = 1/2σ/haH = 1/2 Ka γ'H2, acting at a height

of 1/3H above the base.
Effect of sloping ground surface
In the case of sloping ground, the vertical stress for an unloaded
ground surface at a any depth z will be as follows;

σv' = γ'z cosβ

The lateral earth pressure on a vertical plane is assumed to act

parallel to the ground surface. 32
Active pressure, σ/ha = Ka σv' = Kaγ'z cosβ
Passive pressure, σ/hp = Kp σv' = Kpγ'z cosβ

Where

Ka 
cos   cos 2
  cos 2  ' 
cos   cos 2
  cos 2  ' 

and

Kp 
cos   cos 2
  cos 2  ' 
cos   cos 2
  cos 2  ' 

If the angle of surface slope is equal to the angle of friction, i.e. β =

φ', the active and passive states coincide, Ka = Kp = 1, and therefore;

σ/ha = σ/hp = σv' cosβ

33
The soil will be in a state of limiting plastic equilibrium with one of
the sets of failure planes parallel to the surface.

In a purely cohesionless soil (c' = 0), the angle of surface slope

cannot exceed the angle of repose, which is the angle of friction of
the soil in its loosest state.
34
Effect of stratified soil
Where the soil behind a retaining wall consists of two or more layers, the
lateral pressure distribution within each layer is determined and a
composite diagram drawn.

Suppose a layer of soil S1 is overlying a soil S2.

The soil properties are φS1, γS1 and φS2, γS2 respectively.

The vertical effective stress is σ/v.

Then, immediately above the interface, σ/ha = KaS1 σ/v.
And immediately below the interface, σ/ha = KaS2 σ/v.

The pressure diagram is given in the figure below which shows a sudden
jump in lateral pressure.

Actually this does not occur, since the horizontal shearing stresses
which develop along the interface have been ignored.

However, it is reasonable to assume such a distribution, since

consequent errors in the magnitudes and position of the resultant thrust
are negligible.
35
In such cases it is advisable to draw the lateral pressure distribution
diagrams for individual layers, and find the resultant pressures (P 1, P2, P3,
etc) for each layer, which will be equal to the area of the corresponding
diagram and acting at their centre of gravity. The magnitude of overall
resultant pressure (PA) will be the summation of the resultant for all the
diagrams. The point of application of the overall resultant (P A) will be
determined by taking the moment about any point.
36
Effect of Water in Backfill
Water in the backfill soil is always undesirable due to the following factors:
• It increases the density and hence the lateral pressure.
• If a water table is developed behind the retaining structure, the effect is
even worst, since the angle of internal friction (φ) becomes zero, giving
Ka = Kp = 1. The active pressure is therefore increased and the passive
pressure is reduced.
• An additional hydrostatic pressure is developed in case of water table
above the base of the wall.
• In cold regions, the freezing of backfill water greatly increases the lateral
pressure, causing movement of the wall. This displacement is usually
not fully recovered even after thawing.

For soils having low permeability, such as saturated clays, the backfill
requires sufficient time to drain. Under the undrained condition, which is
most critical, it is appropriate to use total stresses and the parameters
Cu and γsat, while φu is zero. It is therefore required to provide adequate
drainage for earth-retaining structures to ensure fully drained
conditions. Regular monitoring is required to ensure that the drainage
elements are not choked and functioning properly.
37
An initially saturated backfill may take some time to drain after placing, but
it is reasonable to assume that stability conditions improve with time due
to drainage
Most of the backfill water problems can be avoided by providing weep-
holes or using lateral drain pipes. The main problem in this case is that the
backfill does not erode through the weep holes or clog the lateral drain
pipes. If sand is used it should be properly graded, with coarse material
adjacent to the drainage element and finer material over the coarse.

Adequate back-face drainage must be provided so that the water table is

not able to rise above the base of the wall. If, as a result of poor drainage
or accidental flooding, the water table rises above the base of the wall, the
effective unit weight (γsat – γw) of the soil below the water table will be used
to calculate the lateral soil pressure and the retaining wall will be subjected
to an additional pressure i.e., hydrostatic pressure.
Assuming that the water table is at the surface the lateral pressures at
depth z will be:

Active pressure, σ/ha = Ka (γsat – γw) z

Passive pressure, σ/hp = Kp (γsat – γw) z
Hydrostatic pressure, Pw = γ w z
38
 MODES OF BACKFILL DRAINAGE
Drainage of the backfill is very important irrespective of the material
used. A retaining wall is generally designed to withstand only the
lateral pressure exerted by the soil and the surcharge if any. It is
therefore necessary to examine the possibility of occurrence of
groundwater table in the material behind the retaining wall during its
lifetime and to recommend appropriate drainage system. The common
modes of backfill drainage are discussed below.
1. Weep Holes
2. Longitudinal Drain Pipes
3. Drainage Filter Strips and Weep Holes
4. Drainage Filter Blanket
5. Geotextiles

1. Weep Holes
For granular backfill material, the provision of weep holes through
the wall is sufficient to allow the necessary drainage. The weep holes are
spaced at some 3 M center to center, both horizontally and vertically. The
holes may be square, rectangular or circular and vary in size (side or
diameter) from 75 to about 150 mm. The weep holes are protected against
choking by gravel filter pockets placed immediately behind each weep hole.
39
40
Drainage Filter Slips

41
42
 2. Longitudinal Drain Pipes
An alternate arrangement for the drainage of granular backfill is
the drain pipes. The perforated or open-jointed longitudinal drain pipes
are placed at the foot of the wall. The gravels or some other suitable filter
material is provided around the open joints for solid pipes or full length
of the perforated pipes. Provision for rodding out of choked material
should be provided at suitable interval for maintenance.

3. Drainage Filter Strips and Weep Holes

If a granular backfill material consists of more than 5 percent
fine sand, silt or clay, it is treated as semi-pervious. For such a material
the provision of only the weep holes will not provide sufficient drainage.
A further complication with this material is a greater tendency of
clogging. In this case it is adequate to provide additional drainage, in the
form of vertical strips of filter material (0.33 x 0.33 m2 in cross section)
placed midway between the weep holes and led down to a continuous
longitudinal strip of the same filter material of the same cross section as
shown in fig.

4. Drainage Filter Blanket

For clayey materials blanket drains of suitable filter material are
necessary. These blankets should be about 0.33 m thick and typical
arrangements are shown in Figs. 43
Generally the vertical drainage blanket will prove satisfactory, especially if
the surface of the retained soil can be protected with some impervious
covering. If this protection cannot be given, then there is a chance of
development of high seepage pressure during heavy rain. In such a
situation the arrangement of inclined filter blanket can substantially
reduce such seepage pressures.

5. Geotextiles
Geotextiles are currently being used more reliably for the backfill
drainage. Especially fabricated geotextile sheet is placed along the back face
of the wall to allow vertical drainage. The backfill adjacent to the geotextile
does not need special grading, since the geotextile itself prevents soil
erosion. It is placed vertically and wraped over the lateral drains (perforated
or open jointed) to avoid clogging. This arrangement will allow the use of
either granular (always preferable) or cohesive backfill.
Although geotextiles are ideal for allowing backfill drainage it is initially
more costly and requires special care while placing and backfilling. However
sufficient long term saving is made since it requires less maintenance, i.e.,
regular inspections and recovering eroded material from the weep holes and
putting it back behind the wall.

44
45
46
 Selection of Backfill Material
A granular material, (such as suitably graded stone, gravel, clean sand
with a small percentage of fines), is always ideal for backfilling. Such a
material is free draining, durable and of good strength but, unfortunately, it
may be expensive in cases.

Economies can sometimes be achieved by using a triangular wedge of

granular material behind the retaining wall as shown in Fig . The wedge
separates the finer material making up the bulk of the backfill from the
back of the wall. With such a wedge, the lateral pressure exerted on the
wall can be calculated assuming that the backfill is made up entirely of the
granular material.

Slag, clinker, burnt colliery shale and other recycled materials that
approximate to a granular soil will generally prove satisfactory as a backfill
material, provided that they do not contain harmful chemicals. Inorganic
silts and clays can be used as backfills but with proper drainage
arrangements. However they can give rise to swelling and shrinkage
problems. Peat, organic soil, chalk, unburnt colliery shale, pulverized fuel
ash and other unsuitable material should not be used as backfill.

47
 OTHER SOURCES OF LATERAL PRESSURE
1. Frost Action
Lateral pressure can develop due to freezing of pore water in the backfill.
The problem however, is small in unsaturated soils unless ice lenses form.
The problem can be eliminated by using granular backfill or providing a
drainage system.

2. Swelling Pressure
If the backfill comprises of expansive clay and the moisture content
increases above the value at the time of placement, it can expand and
produce very large lateral pressure. The problem can be somewhat
minimized by placing the clay under carefully controlled conditions of no
lumps and at a moisture content considerably above optimum moisture
content. The problem can be considerably alleviated by using granular
backfill, which may not always be possible. In case of overconsolidated
clay lateral pressure is not likely to develop, since the high initial Ko
stresses will be lost as soon as the excavation is made.

3. Thrust Due to Temperature

Retaining walls providing restraint to members which experience thermal
expansion and contraction, may develop unwanted stresses. This problem
can be solved by minimizing the restraint with rollers, hinges, or expansion
joints. Typically this occurs in bridge abutments. 48
 4. Lateral Pressure Due to Compaction
The lateral pressure on the retaining wall increases due to
compaction of the backfill. The criterion to estimate such pressure has
not yet been developed. The factors which affect the lateral pressure
due to compaction are the following:

1. Width of backfill zone

2. Type of backfill
3. Type and weight of compaction equipment
4. Method of compaction
5. Lateral Pressure Due to Earthquakes

Field observations and model studies indicate that earthquake and

machinery vibrations will increase the lateral pressure on the wall.

Tension cracks
For cohesive soils the Rankine’s equation for active pressure is as
follows:

σ/ha = γzKa - 2cu√Ka (1)

49
At the ground surface, where z = 0, the active pressure has a magnitude of
-2cu. The distribution of active earth pressure against a smooth vertical
retaining surface is shown in figure below.

It can be seen that negative lateral pressure exists down to a depth of Zo,
where the active pressure is then zero. Within this zone of negative
pressure, the soil will be in a state of lateral tension. From a practical point
of view, this tension is treated as an intrinsic internal property of the soil
mass. It cannot act on the wall and thus provide support. Tension cracks
tend to develop in the tension zone, starting at the ground surface and
extending downward to a maximum depth of Zo. In the calculation of the
lateral active thrust, the tension zone is ignored and the value of PA taken
as the positive (shaded) area.

Resultant active thrust, PA = 1/2 σ/ha(H) (H-Zo)

The depth of tension zone may be obtained from Eq. (1), by putting Z=Z o
and σ/ha = 0

2cu
Zo 
 Ka
50
51
EXAMPLE-1
Determine the total active pressure and its location for wall-soil system

SOLUTION
Find horizontal thrust at different locations along depth of wall and
draw its distribution diagram. 52
Horizontal thrust at the top of the wall

i.e., at h = 00
1  sin 32
k a1  0.307
h1 = qs ka1, 1  sin 32
= 2 x 0.307 = 0.614 ksf

Horizontal thrust at 10-ft. depth but within the upper soil layer. For
upper soil layer ka1 will be used.

i.e., at h = 10-ft.
 h2 = (1h +qs) ka1
= (0.105 x 10 + 2) 0.307
= 0.936 ksf

Horizontal thrust at 10-ft. depth but within the lower soil layer. For lower
soil layer ka2 will be used. Upper soil layer will be considered as a
surcharge. The value is equal to applied surcharge plus the overburden
pressure from the upper layer and is calculated as follows:
53
qs = 2 + 0.105 x 10 = 3.05 ksf

1  sin 30
 h3 = qs ka2 ka 2  0.333
1  sin 30
= 3.05 x 0.333 = 1.015 ksf

Horizontal thrust at the bottom of the wall, i.e., at h = 20-ft. Since it is

below water table sub will be used. sub =  - w
 h4 = (2h +qs) ka2
= [(0.1225 -0.0624) 10 + 3.05] 0.333
= 1.215 ksf

An additional hydrostatic pressure will be applied due water table at 10-

ft. depth

 hw = 0.0624 x 10 = 0.624 ksf

Thrust diagram is shown in the figure below. Lateral pressure equal to
the area of each component of diagram is calculated and written
accordingly. The total resultant pressure acting the retaining wall is the
summation of all components of lateral pressure.
54
Total Resultant Pressure = 6.14+1.61+10.15+1.0+3.12 = 22.02 kip per
running foot of the wall.
Location of the resultant pressure = Y = [6.14 x 15 + 1.61 x 13.33 + 10.15 x
5 + 1.0 x 3.33 + 3.12 x 3.33] / 22.02 = 178.03 / 22.02 = 8.085-ft

0.614 k/ft

0.614 x 10 = 6.14 k/ft

10

0.322 x 10/2 = 1.61 k/ft

0.936
2 Resultant pressure
3
1.015
13.33-ft 15-ft

10 1.015 x 10 = 10.15 k/ft

Y
Hydrostatic pressure
5-ft
0.2 x 10/2 = 1.0 k/ft 0.624 x 10/2 = 3.12 k/ft
3.33-ft
4

0.2 0.624

1.215

55
EXAMPLE-2

Figure shows a backfill behind a smooth vertical retaining wall.

Unconfined compressive strength of clay = 20 kN/m2. Density of RCC in
body of the retaining wall is 23.5 kN/m3 and that of soil is 19.0 kN/m3.
Thickness of components of RCC retaining wall = 0.5-m.
Determine the shear force in kN which will be mobilized beneath the base
of the wall to prevent movement away from the backfill.
At what height above the base does the total thrust act.
Draw to scale a diagram illustrating the horizontal pressure distribution
along the back of the wall.
Determine whether the wall is safe against sliding as well as overturning.

clay = 1750 kg/m3

= 1750 x 9.81/1000
= 17.16 kN/m3

sand = 1950 kg/m3 = 19.13 kN/m3

56
Fig: Retaining wall and the backfill details
57
SOLUTION
Unconfined compressive strength of clay = qu = 20 kN/m2

qu
Cohesion  10kN / m 2
2
For clay
1  sin 
ka  1.0
1  sin 
For sand
1  sin 30
ka  1 / 3
1  sin 30

1. Horizontal active thrust at the top of clay layer = q s ka – 2C ka

= 20 x 1.0 – 2 x 10 1.0 = 0.00 kN/m2

58
2. Horizontal active thrust at the bottom of clay = (h +qs) ka – 2C ka

17.16 2  201.0  2 10 1.0

= 34.32 kN/m2

Upper clay layer will be considered as a surcharge. The value of total

surcharge is equal to the applied surcharge plus the overburden pressure
from the upper clay layer and is calculated as follows:
Total surcharge on sand layer = qs1 = 20 + 17.16x2=54.32 kN/m2

3. Horizontal active thrust at the top of sand layer = q s1 ka

= 54.32 x 1/3 = 18.1 kN/m2
4. Horizontal active thrust at the bottom of sand layer = (h +qs1) ka
= {(19.13 – 9.81) 6 + 54.3}1/3
= 36.74 kN/m2
5. Hydrostatic pressure due to water table = wh = 9.81 x 6 = 58.86 kN/m2
Horizontal thrust diagram is shown in the figure below. Lateral pressure
equal to the area of each component of diagram is calculated and written
accordingly. The total resultant pressure acting the retaining wall is the
summation of all components of lateral pressure.
59
 Horizontal thrust diagram
P1 = ½ x 34.32 x 2 = 34.32 kN/m
P2 = 18.1 x 6 = 108.6 kN/m
P3 = ½ x 18.64 x 6 = 55.92 kN/m
P4 = ½ x 58.86 x 6 = 176.58 kN/m
Resultant active pressure = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4
= 375.42 kN per meter length of
wall

34.32 kN/m

34.32

18.1

6.67-m

108.6 kN/m
PA

55.92 kN/m 176.58 kN/m

Y
2.0-m 3.0-m

18.64 58.86

Fig: Horizontal thrust distribution diagram

60
Location of the resultant active pressure

R Y = 34.32 (6.67) + 108.6 x 3 + 55.92 x 2 + 176.58 x 2

228.9  325.8  111 .84  353.16
Y
375.42
1019.7
Y 2.716  m above base of wall
375.42

Shear force mobilized below the base of the wall

= 34.32+ 108.6 + 55.92 + 176.58
= 375.42 kN per meter length of wall

61
Check for Stability against Overturning

Fig: Weights of the wall components and their location

62
 Overturning Moment due Earth Pressure = 375.42 x 2.716
= 1019.7 m-kN

Stabilizing Moment due to weight of wall

Weight of bottom RCC strip (A) of retaining wall =
WA = 2.5x0.5x1x23.5 = 29.375 kN
Weight of vertical RCC strip (B) of retaining wall =
WB = 7x0.5x1x23.5 = 82.25 kN
Weight of top RCC strip (C) of retaining wall =
WC = 1x0.5x1x23.5 = 11.75 kN
Weight of compacted soil (D) =
WD = (2+0.5/2) x 7 x 1 x 19 = 166.25 kN

Movement arms of the above weights with respect to the center of

rotation ‘L’
XA = 1.25m
XB = 2.25m
XC = 2.0m
XD = 1.3m
= WA XA + WB XB + WC XC +WD XD
Stabilizing Moment = 29.375 x 1.25 + 82.25 x 2.25
+ 11.75 x 2 + 166.25 x 1.3
63
= 461.4 m-kN
Overturning Moment is higher than the Stabilizing Moment, the wall will
overturn.

Check for Stability against Sliding

Fig: Location of center of Fig: Weights of wall

gravity components & their location
64
 The wall is supported on saturated sand. The angle of internal friction
of sand ‘’ = 30o
The angle of friction between soil and wall base ‘’ =
2/3 (30o) = 20o

Weight of the wall acting the base ‘LM’ = 289.625-kN

Total stress at the base per unit length of the wall acting =
289.625 / 2.5 x 1.0
 = 115.85-kN/m2

Effective stress at the base per unit length of the wall acting
=  - w hw
= 115.85 – 9.81 x 6
/ = 56.99-kN/m2
Shear resistance at the base =  = / tan  = 56.99 tan 20o
= 20.74-kN/m2
Shear force (resistance against sliding) acting at the base per unit
length of the wall
=  x base area = 20.74 x 2.5 x 1.0 = 51.85-kN
Active pressure is more than shear force developed at the base, the
will slide away.
65
 DISCUSSION
Available details regarding water table are not sufficient to decide the
use of total or effective stress. Since the water table is only on one side
the retaining wall (i.e., the backfill being waterlogged) the use of total
stress at the base of the wall seems more logical. The calculations are
as follows:

Total stress at the base per unit length of the wall acting
= 289.625 / 2.5 x 1.0
 = 115.85-kN/m2

Shear resistance at the base =  =  tan  = 115.85 tan 20o

= 42.16-kN/m2

Shear force (resistance against sliding) acting at the base per unit
length of the wall
=  x base area = 42.16 x 2.5 x 1.0 = 105.41-kN
Active pressure is more than shear force developed at the base, the
will slide away.

66
EXAMPLE-3
Figure shows a backfill behind a smooth vertical retaining wall.
Unconfined compressive strength of clay = 20 kN/m2. Density of RCC in
body of the retaining wall is 23.5 kN/m2 and that of soil is 19.0 kN/m2.
Thickness of components of RCC retaining wall = 0.5-m.

Determine the shear force in kN which will be mobilized

beneath the base of the wall to prevent movement away from
the backfill.
At what height above the base does the total thrust act.

Draw to scale a diagram illustrating the horizontal pressure

distribution along the back of the wall.

Determine whether the wall is safe against sliding as well as overturning.

67
68
 SOLUTION:
Active pressure will be the same as already determined in example-2.
Passive pressure will however develop on the left side due to the leftward
movement of the wall resulting from pressure of the retained backfill.

1  sin 30
For sand kp = 3.0
1  sin 30

Pp = ½  H2 kp = 0.5 x 19.13 x 12 x 3 = 28.695-kN

The passive pressure will act 1/3-m above the base of the wall.
Pp will provide additional resistance against sliding as well as overturning.

Additional resistance against sliding = 28.695-kN

Additional resistance against overturning = 1/3 x 28.695 = 9.565 kN-m.

The wall is still unsafe against sliding and overturning, since the active
pressure and the overturning moment are yet greater than the total
resistance against sliding as well as overturning even after adding the
additional resistance due to passive pressure.
69