Thermodynamics

• Learning Objectives

On completion of this semester you should be able to:

1. Understand the concept of thermal process
2. Understand the thermodynamic properties
3. Use steam table to evaluate thermodynamic processes
4. Apply the energy equation for thermodynamic process

5. Understand the concept of energy conservation

6. Apply the modified energy equation for thermodynamic

processes
 THERMODYNAMICS (BASIC TERMS)

• Thermodynamics: is a branch of science that deals with the

study of different forms of energy and the quantitative
relationships between them.
• System: Quantity of matter or a region of space which is under
consideration in the analysis of a problem.
• Surroundings: Anything outside the thermodynamic system is
called the surroundings. The system is separated from the
surroundings by the boundary. The boundary may be either
fixed or moving.
• Closed system: There is no mass transfer across the system
boundary. Energy transfer may be there.
 BASIC TERMS CON

• Open system: There may be both matter and energy transfer

across the boundary of the system.

• Isolated system: There is neither matter nor energy transfer

across the boundary of the system.

• State of the system and state variable: The state of a system

means the conditions of the system. It is described in terms of
certain observable properties which are called the state
variables, for example, temperature (t), pressure (p), and volume
(v).
 BASIC TERMS CON

• State function: A physical quantity is a state function in the

change in its value during the process depends only upon the
initial state and final state of the system and does not depend
on the path by which the change has been brought about.
 BASIC TERMS CON

• Macroscopic system and its properties: If as system

contains a large number of chemical species such
as atoms, ions, and molecules, it is called
macroscopic system. Extensive properties: These
properties depend upon the quantity of matter
contained in the system. Examples are; mass,
volume, heat capacity, internal energy, enthalpy,
entropy, Gibb's free energy. Intensive properties:
These properties depend only upon the amount of
the substance present in the system, for example,
temperature, refractive index, density, surface
tension, specific heat, freezing point, and boiling
point.
 BASIC TERMS CON
• Types of thermodynamic processes: We say that a
thermodynamic process has occurred when the system
changes from one state (initial) to another state (final).

• Isothermal process: When the temperature of a system remains

constant during a process, we call it isothermal. Heat may flow
in or out of the system during an isothermal process.
 BASIC TERMS CON
• Adiabatic process: No heat can flow from the system to the
surroundings or vice versa.
• Isochoric process: It is a process during which the volume of the
system is kept constant.
• Isobaric process: It is a process during which the pressure of
the system is kept constant.
• Reversible processes: A process which is carried out
infinitesimally slowly so that all changes occurring in the direct
process can be exactly reversed and the system remains almost
in a state of equilibrium with the surroundings at every stage of
the process.
 Basic Thermodynamics

• Overview

– Forms of energy

– Laws of thermodynamic

– Methods of heat transfer

– Properties of water and steam

– Thermodynamic cycles
 Forms of Energy

• Chemical energy: energy stored within chemical bounds of a

substance (petroleum group such as: firewood, coal, petrol,
gas, oil and gasoline)

• Thermal energy: energy arising from a chemical reaction

(combustion processes or friction (heat))

• Mechanical energy: work produced by a mechanical device

 First Law of Thermodynamics

• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but rather

transformed from one form to another.

• The change of internal energy (U) of a system can be

increased by:
– Adding energy to the system in the form of heat energy (Q)
– Doing work on the system (W)

There are many processes through which these could be accomplished as

long as energy is conserved
 First Law Con

• Energy transfer occur due to:

– By doing work – this requires a macroscopic displacement of an object

through the application of a force

– By heat – this occur through the random molecular collisions

• Both result in a change in the internal energy of the system.

 First Law Equation

• If a system undergoes a change from an initial state to a final state,

as demonstrated by figure below then:
 First Law signs

• Signs of the terms in the equation (slide 5)

• Positive if energy is transferred to the system by heat (refer to slide 6)

• Negative if energy is transferred out of the system by heat (when do we expect this
process to occur ?)

• Positive if the work is done by the system (positive work decreases the internal energy
of the system) typical example of such process to occur?
• Negative if work is done on the system (negative work increases the internal energy of
the system). (refer to slide 6)
This is consistent with the definition of mechanical work

• Positive if the temperature increases

• Negative if the temperature decreases (refer to slide 6)
 Results of

• Change in the internal energy result in change in the

measurable macroscopic variables of the system.
(thermodynamics variables)
• These include
– Pressure
– Temperature
– Volume
This will call for the use of Pressure volume (P-v), Temperature entropy
(T-s) diagrams as demonstrated by course outline provided. To be covered
later.
 T-s Diagram (Constant Pressure Process)
working substance water and steam

𝑡
𝑡

𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑎 𝑛
𝑠𝑡

𝑠
𝑛

𝑐𝑜𝑛
C
𝑐𝑜
𝑃= 1

𝑣=
2

𝑆 [ 𝑘𝐽 /𝑘𝑔 ] . 𝑘
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆2 𝑆1
Typical heating process at constant Typical example of a cooling
pressure. Working substance water and process at a constant volume.
steam. Our main focus will be to Our main focus will be to
Determine heat supplied (Qin) or determine entropy change ()
or heat rejected
Entropy change ()

More details will be covered later

 P-v diagram (constant temperature process)
compressed air in a piston – cylinder device

𝑃 𝑛
T
𝑃𝑣 =𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑉2 𝑉1
𝑉
Polytropic process
The process occurs in such a way the temperature (in
the piston–cylinder mechanism remains constant

The details will be covered later

 Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Fuel is burned to heat working substance such as water to produce steam
for power generation (chemical energy to thermal energy).

• The work done by heat becomes kinetic energy in the working substance
(thermal energy to kinetic energy)

• Working substance is passed across turbine (steam) to do work i.e. rotate

shaft which is coupled to electrical generator for generating electricity
(power) (kinetic energy to mechanical energy)

• Work done by engine produces non-useable heat which must be lost i.e.
friction (mechanical energy to thermal energy)

• All these lead to definition of second Law of thermodynamics as

demonstrated by the next slide.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics Con

• No thermodynamic process can have a thermal efficiency of 100%

(referee to the previous slide for the reason)

• No engine can convert all energy supplied to it into work. It is not 100%
efficiency.

• Some energy is lost

• Heat of combustion transferred to equipment

• Heat of friction is produced by equipment

• Both of these are unusable and will ultimately be lost to the

environment (i.e. carried away by a cooling system/medium)
 Second Law Con

• Work in thermodynamics processes – assumptions

– Dealing with a gas: (contained in a piston cylinder arrangement)

• Assumed to be in thermodynamics equilibrium

• Every part of the gas is at the same temperature

• Every part of the gas is at the same pressure

– Ideal gas law applies
 Types of Head Transfer

• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
No details will be given here since this will be covered under
MMB 421(Heat Transfer)
 Properties of Water and Steam

• Sensible heat
– Heat added to a substance which produces a temperature increases

• Latent heat
– Heat added to a substance which causes a phase change

More of these will be covered under air conditioning last part of the
semester
 Terms

• Saturated temperature:
– Temperature, or point at which water changes phase

• Superheated steam
– Steam at temperature above saturation point

• Desuperheated steam
– Superheated steam that has been cooled to a temperature just above
saturated point
 Five components of a thermodynamic Cycle

• Working substance – medium by which energy is carried through a cycle

• Engine – device that converts the energy of a working substance into useful
mechanical energy to performed work (for this subject we will be talking
about turbine) in a power generation plant

• Heat sink – absorbs heat from working substances after it has performed
work in the engine (for this subject we will be talking about condenser) in
a power generation plant.

• Heat source – supplies heat to the working substance (in the case of
Morupule power generation plant we are talking about pulverised coal)

• Pump – moves the working substance from the low pressure side to the high
pressure side of the cycle
 Thermodynamic Cycles

• Heat source

• Engine

• Heat receiver

• Pump

• Working substance
 Selected types of thermal Processes

• Isochoric process
– Volume stays constant
– No work done by the system

• Isothermal process
– Temperature stays the same
– No change of internal energy

• Adiabatic process
– No heat is exchanged with the surroundings
 Problems
• A well-insulated electric oven is being heated through its heating element. If
the entire oven, including the heating element, is taken to be the system,
determine whether this is a heat or work interaction. Give reason to your
choice.
• A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while stirred by a paddle
wheel. Initial, the internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During the cooling
process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and the paddle wheel does 100 kJ of
work to the fluid. Determine the final internal energy of the fluid, neglect
the stored in the paddle wheel.
• The water in a large lake is to be used to generate electricity by the
installation of a hydraulic turbine-generator at a location where the depth of
the water is 50m. Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000 kg/s. if the electric
power generated is measured to be 1862 kW and the efficiency is 95%,
determine
– (a) the overall efficiency of the turbine generator
– (b) the mechanical efficiency of the turbine
– (c) the shaft power supplied by the turbine to the generator
 Problems
• A piston-cylinder device contains 0.06 m3 of saturated water vapour at
350 kPa. Determine the temperature and the mass of the vapour inside
the cylinder.

• A mass of 200g of saturated liquid water is completely vaporised at a

constant pressure of 100 kPa. Determine (a) the volume change and
(b) the amount of energy transferred to the water