MEE 359

MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

MACHINING
DEFINITION
Machining is a process in which a material (often metal) is cut to a desired final
shape and size by a controlled material-removal process. Machining is a part of the
manufacturing of many metal products, but it can also be used on other materials
such as wood, plastic, ceramic, and composite material.

A person who specializes in machining is called a machinist. A room, building, or

company where machining is done is called a machine shop. Much of modern-day
machining is carried out by Computer Numerical Control (CNC), in which
computers are used to control the movement and operation of the mills, lathes, and
other cutting machines.

This increases efficiency, as the CNC machine runs unmanned therefore reducing
labour costs for machine shops.
Machining Processes
The three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling, and milling. Other
operations falling into miscellaneous categories include shaping, boring, sawing etc.

 Turning operations are operations that rotate the workpiece as the primary method of moving
metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are the principal machine tool used in turning.

 Milling operations are operations in which the cutting tool rotates to bring cutting edges to bear
against the workpiece. Milling machines are the principal machine tool used in milling.

 Drilling operations are operations in which holes are produced or refined by bringing a rotating
cutter with cutting edges at the lower extremity into contact with the workpiece. Drilling
operations are done primarily in drill presses but sometimes on lathes or mills.
Machining Processes
• Turning
• Milling
• Drilling
• Shaping
• Grinding
• Broaching
Application of Manufacturing
Processes
Application of Manufacturing
Processes
Application of Manufacturing
Processes
Cutting Parameters
Cutting Speed: Cutting speed is the distance traveled by the work surface in unit time
with reference to the cutting edge of the tool.
The cutting speed, v is simply referred to as speed and usually expressed in m/min.

Feed: The feed is the distance advanced by the tool into or along the workpiece each time
the tool point passes a certain position in its travel over the surface.
In case of turning, feed is the distance that the tool advances in one revolution of the
workpiece.
Feed f is usually expressed in mm/rev. Sometimes it is also expressed in mm/min and is
called feed rate.

Depth of cut : It is the distance through which the cutting tool is plunged into the workpiece
surface.
Thus it is the distance measured perpendicularly between the machined surface and the
unmachined (uncut) surface or the previously machined surface of the workpiece.
The depth of cut d is expressed in mm.
Selection of cutting speed and feed
The selection of cutting speed and feed is based on the following
parameters:
• Workpiece material
• Tool Material
• Tool geometry and dimensions
• Size of chip cross-section
• Types of finish desired
• Rigidity of the machine
• Types of coolant used
Selection of cutting speed and feed
Cutting tools & its characteristics
A cutting tool is a device used to remove unwanted material from a given
workpiece. For carrying out the machining process, a cutting tool is fundamental
and essential requirement. A cutting tool must have the following characteristics:
• Hardness: The tool material must be harder than the workpiece material. The
higher the hardness, the easier the tool to penetrate the work material.
• Hot hardness: Hot Hardness is the ability of the cutting tool to maintain its
Hardness and strength at elevated temperatures. This property is more important
when the tool is used at higher cutting speeds, for increased productivity.
• Toughness: In spite of the tool being tough, it should have enough toughness to
withstand the impact loads. Toughness of cutting tools is needed so that tools
don’t chip or fracture, especially during interrupted cutting operations like milling.
Cutting tools & its characteristics
• Wear Resistance: The tool-chip and chip-work interface are exposed to severe conditions that
adhesive and abrasion wear is very common. Wear resistance means the attainment of acceptable
tool life before tools need to be replaced.

• Low friction: The coefficient of friction between the tool and chip should be low. This would lower
wear rates and allow better chip flow.

• Thermal characteristics: Since a lot of heat is generated at the cutting zone, the tool material should
have higher thermal conductivity to dissipate the heat in shortest possible time, otherwise the tool
temperature would become high, reducing its life.
Cutting Tool Materials
• Carbon and Medium alloy steels : These are the oldest of the tool materials dating back
hundreds of years. In simple terms it is a high carbon steel (steel which contains about 0.9 to
1.3% carbon). Inexpensive, easily shaped, sharpened. No sufficient hardness and wear
resistance. Limited to low cutting speed operation
• High Speed Steel (1900): The major difference between high speed tool steel and plain high
carbon steel is the addition of alloying elements (manganese, chromium, tungsten, vanadium,
molybdenum, cobalt, and niobium) to harden and strengthen the steel and make it more
resistant to heat (hot hardness). They are of two types: Tungsten HSS (denoted by T),
Molybdenum HSS (denoted by M).
• Cemented Carbides or Sintered Carbides (1926-30): These tools are produced by powder
metallurgy. Carbide tools are basically of three types: tungsten carbide (WC), tantalum carbide
(TaC), and titanium carbide (TiC). The carbides or combined carbides are mixed with a binder of
cobalt. They are able to retain hardness to a temperature of about 10000C. So they can be used
at high speeds. Carbide tool are available as brazed tip tools (carbide tip is brazed to steel tool)
and inserts (inserts are of various shapes- triangular, square diamond and round).
Cutting Tool Materials
• Coated cemented carbide (1960): Tool life to about 200 to 300 % or more. A thin, chemically
stable, hard refractory coating of TiC, TiN or Al2O3 is used. The bulk of the tool is tough, shock
resistant carbide that can withstand high temperatures. Because of its wear resistance,
coated tool can be used at still higher speeds.
• Cast cobalt alloys or Stellites (1915): It is a non-ferrous alloy consisting mainly of cobalt,
tungsten and chromium (38% to 53% Cobalt, 30% to 33% Chromium, and 4% to 20%
Tungsten). Other elements added in varying proportions are molybdenum, manganese,
silicon and carbon. It has good shock and wear resistance properties and retains its harness
up to 9000C. Stellite tools can operate at speed about 25% higher than that of HSS tools .
• Cemented oxides or Ceramic Cutting Tools (1950s): Non-metallic materials made of pure
Aluminum oxide by powder metallurgy. The application ceramic cutting tools are limited
because of their extreme brittleness. The transverse rupture strength (TRS) is very low. This
means that they will fracture more easily when making heavy interrupted cuts. However, the
strength of ceramics under compression is much higher than HSS and carbide tools. It has
high hot hardness (up to 1200 degree C), so capable of running at high speeds.
Cutting Tool Materials
• Cermets: Cermets are ceramic material in metal binders. TiC, nickel, TiN, and other
carbides are used as binders. Cermets have higher hot hardness and oxidation resistance
than cemented carbides but less toughness. They are used for finishing operation. The
main problem with cermets is that due to thermal shock the inserts crack.
• Diamond: They are of two types - industrial grade natural diamonds, and synthetic
polycrystalline diamonds. Because diamonds are pure carbon, they have an affinity for the
carbon of ferrous metals. Therefore, they can only be used on non-ferrous metals. Feeds
should be very light and high speeds Rigidity in the machine tool and the setup is very
critical because of the extreme hardness and brittleness of diamond.
• Cubic Boron Nitride (1962): Cubic boron nitride (CBN) is similar to diamond in its
polycrystalline structure and is also bonded to a carbide base. With the exception of
titanium, or titanium-alloyed materials, CBN will work effectively as a cutting tool on most
common work materials. However, the use of CBN should be reserved for very hard and
difficult-to-machine materials.
Cutting tool material and recommended
speed range

FIGURE : The range of applicable cutting speeds and fees for a variety of tool materials. Source: Valenite, Inc.

Figure from: “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 4 th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid, Prentice
Hall 2003
Cutting Tool Geometry
There are two basic types of cutting tools:
 Single point tool; and
 Multiple-cutting-edge tool

•A single point tool has one cutting edge and is used for turning, boring and
planning. During machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the original
work surface of the work-part. The point is sometimes rounded to a certain
radius, called the nose radius.
•Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually
achieve their motion relative to the work-part by rotating. Drilling and milling use
rotating multiple-cutting-edge tools. Although the shapes of these tools are
different from a single-point tool, many elements of tool geometry are similar.
Cutting forces

The force system in general case of conventional turning process

Cutting forces
The largest magnitude is the vertical force Fc which in turning is larger than feed
force Ff, and Ff is larger than radial force Fr.
For orthogonal cutting system Fr is made zero by placing the face of cutting tool at
90 degree to the line of action of the tool.
Machining Operations

There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which is capable of generating a
certain part geometry and surface texture.

•In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a
rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape. The primary motion is provided by
rotating the workpiece, and the feed motion is achieved by moving the cutting tool slowly in
a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
•Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that typically
has two or four helical cutting edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of
rotation into the workpiece to form the round hole.
•In boring, a tool with a single bent pointed tip is advanced into a roughly made hole in a
spinning workpiece to slightly enlarge the hole and improve its accuracy. It is a fine finishing
operation used in the final stages of product manufacture.
Machining Operations Cont’d
•Reaming is one of the sizing operations that removes a small amount of
metal from a hole already drilled.
•In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly relative
to the material to generate a plane or straight surface. The direction of the
feed motion is perpendicular to the tool's axis of rotation. The speed motion
is provided by the rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling are:
Peripheral milling
Face milling.
•Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planning,
broaching and sawing. Also, grinding and similar abrasive operations are
often included within the category of machining.
THANK YOU