Engineering Geology

PRAKASH CHANDRA GHIMIRE

Education
• Msc. Geology( Specialization in
Engineering Geology)

IOST, TU
 Chapter- 6
Measurement, Analysis and Interpretation
of Structural Geological Data
• Rock mass: Introduction, properties, classification system
• Measurement of the structural geological data from the rock
mass
• Stereographic projection: Plotting of a line and plane
• Structural analysis: Principles, phases of the analysis, analysis
of the structural geological data using stereonet, rose
diagrams, block diagrams and Historical diagrams
• Determination of the mean value of the major discontinuity
sets
• Interpretation of structural geological data for the specific
engineering geological problems
 Rock mass: Introduction
• Rockmass is combination of intact rock &
discontinuities.
• Rock mass is heterogeneous in nature due to variation
in rock type, discontinuities and the degree of
weathering.
• The strength of rock mass depends upon the
discontinuities rather than the intact rock strength.
• Rock mass = Intact rock+ Discontinuities
• The rock where discontinuities are not present is called
Intact rock.
• Intact rock has their own mineralogy, texture, degree of
weathering, cementation and rock type.
 Properties of discontinuities of
Rockmass
• Properties of rockmass may be studied depending
upon whether it’s a rock mass or intact rock.
Properties of intact rock
Rock strength:
Strength of an intact rock is a quantitative
engineering property. Rock experiences different
stresses namely tensile, compressive and shear.
Compressive strength is the most widely used stress
for engineering applications.
 Properties of Discontinuities
• Rocks are involved in construction and design of structures and are
to be studied during excavation in tunnels, dams, mines, etc.
• The strength and stability of the rocks are of prime importance
which depends upon the rock mass discontinuity properties.
• Rock mass show heterogeneity and anisotropism due to varying
rock type, presence of discontinuities and differing degrees of
weathering.
• These discontinuities in rock masses are observed in statistically
heterogeneous region. So, for further investigation of
discontinuity, statistically heterogeneous region is identified
initially.
• Such regions are identified with single rock type, sediment
deposition, and same no. of joint sets with similar orientation.
Proper investigation of the rock mass discontinuity properties is
essential to collect useful information about the rock.
Rock mass Classification System
with its measurement
 Discontinuities in rock masses:
• Rock masses are heterogeneous and anisotropic because of
differing rock types, presence of discontinuities and varying
degrees of weathering.

• Statistically homogeneous region is identified first. Such region

includes a portion of a rock mass, which contains same rock
type having similar weathering condition, and same number of
joint sets and their similar orientation distributions.

Characteristics of Discontinuities
• For each statistically homogeneous region joint properties are
measured that includes orientation, spacing, persistence,
surface characteristics, aperture(opening), infill material (if
present). Shear strengths of discontinuity surfaces are
dependent on one or more of these factors.
• Orientation: It refers to dip amount and dip direction of a discontinuity. It
controls mode of failure, daylight situation and mechanical anisotropy.

• Spacing: It refers to the perpendicular distance between two adjacent

discontinuities. It affects overall rock mass strength, excavation methods
and support system. Spacing increases with depth except in faulting regions.

• Continuity(Persistence): It refers to the continuity or areal extent of a

discontinuity and is particularly important because it defines the potential
volume of the failure mass. Intact rocks or rock bridges may interrupt
persistence.
• Surface characteristics: Waviness or undulation of the surface, smaller scale
roughness of the surface, physical properties of any infill materials are
important.
• Aperture: Aperture is important for fluid flow and shear strength along the
joint.Aperture relates to the outlet present within the discontinuity. The
outlet may either be empty or filled with materials. The joint with aperture
filled up by infill material is open.
• Water flow condition: The water flow condition of the rock mass
discontinuity is essential for proper rock mass strength estimation.
Following conditions rule the water flow situation during site investigation:
a)Dry b) Wet c) Seepage d) Dripping e) Flow
Joint spacing
Joint persistency
Joint aperture
Joint infill material
Number of joint set and
mechanical behavior
Identify:
- No. of joint set
- Orientation
- Spacing
- Persistency
- Aperture
- Infill material

N
Weathering of Rock mass:
• Physical weathering results in changes in size and number
of discontinuities present in rock mass
• Chemical weathering is enhanced by movement of
groundwater through the networks of discontinuities
• The negative influence of physical and chemical weathering
on rock mass strength or quality is apparent as it weakens
the whole rock mass.
• Weathering grade of rock significantly influences the
engineering properties of rock. Degree of weathering
depends upon various factors such as size, orientation, of
discontinuities and groundwater movement
Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
• The RQD value is the percentage obtained by dividing
the summed length of all core pieces equal to or
greater than 10 cm long by the cored interval length
• Smaller pieces and/or core loss, are assumed to result
from closely spaced discontinuities, shearing,
faulting, or weathering, all of which decrease rock
mass quality.
• Its aim is to provide a quantitative estimate of rock
mass quality from drill logs.
• An RQD of 100% indicates 100% core recovery with all
pieces equal to or greater than 10 cm in length,
thus it doesn’t imply an unjointed rock mass.
• RQD was introduced by Deere to determine the
quantitative estimate of rock mass quality from drill
core log. RQD is given by:
RQD =
Sum of Length of core pieces> 10 cm * 100%
Total length of core
Sometimes, the drilling may be inaccessible in such cases
RQD can be determined by the following epirically relation
suggested by Palmstorm:
RQD= 115- 3.3 Jv
Where, Jv= Total number of discontinuities (Jv) in a cubic
metre of rock mass
 From the value obtained for RQD, Rock mass is
classified according to the table shown below:
RQD value (%) Rock mass quality
<25 Very poor
25-50 Poor
50-75 Fair
75-90 Good
90-100 Excellent
 Rock mass Classification System
Rock mass classification system ensures to improve
the quality of site investigation by providing
quantitative information for design purpose. It is
also used to determine the strength of rock and
help to determine the support condition required
for rock to provide desired strength and leads to
successful completion of an engineering project.
Different rock mass classification systems are:
1. Terzaghi rock mass classification
2. Rock Quality Designation Index (RQD)
3. Bieniawski’s Geomechanics classification
4. Rock Tunneling Quality Index (Q-value)
Rock Mass Classification System
• The strength of an intact rock sample and that of a rock
mass of the same rock type differs greatly.
• The intersecting joints reduces the strength of the rock
mass.
• So there is a need to have an acceptable universal
classification or rock for geotechnical purposes
• The more universal the intended use of a classification,
the greater the number of intact rock and rock mass
properties that must be measured for the classification.
• No single parameter or index is present that can fully
and quantitatively describe a jointed rock mass for
engineering purposes
• Various parameters have different significances, and
only if taken together can they describe a rock
mass satisfactorily.
• There are various rock mass classification systems
developed by many investigators and couple of them are
most widely used.
Rock mass classification:
• Terzaghi’s descriptive rock-mass classification for
estimating tunnel-support requirements was developed in
1946. Who classify the rockmass on the basis of parameters
like , Presence of joints , joints number & character of
discontinuities and degree of chemical weathering etc .)
•Where the Rock mass strength classification by John(1962).
• The
quantified joint spacing and degree of weathering is then
added the intact UCS of the rock.
• Rock Structure Rating (RSR) classification of
Wickham et al. (1971) was designed for tunnel-support
application. It gives the information of the effects of rock
types and structure, joint spacing and orientation, and joint
conditions and water inflow for use in designing tunnel support
system.
• Bieniawski’s Geomechanics Classification (1974) or
RMR uses RQD, UCS, and spacing, separation,
continuity, & orientation of joint, and groundwater
flow.
• Q-system classification of Barton et al.(1974) of Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute (NGI) requires RQD, number of
joint sets (Jn), joint roughness (Jr), joint alteration (Ja), water
flow in joints (Jw) and rock-stress reduction factor (SRF).
Rock mass quality Q = (RQD/Jn)* (Jr/Ja)*(Jw/SRF)
 Terzaghi rock mass classification
• This is the first organized system, which was
proposed by Dr. Karl Terzaghi. This system was
mainly qualitative and used for rock tunnel
design and construction projects.
Bieniawski’s Geomechanics Classification or Rock Mass Rating
(RMR)
• Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system is a geomechanical
classification system of rocks developed by Bieniawski in 1973.
• This system provides the quantitative information
about the rocks.
• In this classification method, the various parameters are
rated and then summed to give the rating of a rock mass
with higher rating indicating rock mass of strong quality.
• The following six parameters are used to classify a rock mass
using this method
 Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material
 Rock Quality Designation
 Spacing of discontinuities
 Condition of discontinuities
 Groundwater condition and
 Orientation of discontinuities
 Guidelines for excavation and support of 10 m span rock tunnels in accordance
with the RMR system
Rock bolts (20
Rock mass class Excavation mm diameter, fully Shotcrete Steel sets
grouted)
I - Very good
rock RMR: 81- Full face, 3 m advance. Generally no support required except spot bolting.
100

Locally, bolts in
Full face , 1-1.5 m advance. 50 mm in
II - Good rock crown 3 m long,
Complete support 20 m crown where None.
RMR: 61-80 spaced 2.5 m with
from face. required.
occasional wire mesh.

Top heading and bench Systematic bolts 4 m

50-100 mm
1.5-3 m advance in top long, spaced 1.5 - 2
III - Fair rock in crown and
heading. Commence support m in crown and walls None.
RMR: 41-60 30 mm in
after each blast. Complete with wire mesh in
sides.
support 10 m from face. crown.

Top heading and bench Systematic bolts 4-5 100-150 mm

1.0-1.5 m advance in top Light to medium
IV - Poor rock m long, spaced 1-1.5 in crown and
heading. Install support ribs spaced 1.5 m
RMR: 21-40 m in crown and walls 100 mm in
concurrently with where required.
with wire mesh. sides.
excavation,
10 m from face.
Multiple drifts 0.5-1.5 m Systematic bolts 5-6 150-200 mm Medium to heavy
advance in top heading. m long, spaced 1-1.5 in crown, 150 ribs spaced 0.75 m
V – Very poor Install support concurrently m in crown and walls mm in sides, with steel lagging and
rock RMR: < 20 with excavation. Shotcrete as with wire mesh. Bolt and 50 mm forepoling if
soon as possible after invert. on face. required.
• This classification system is applicable and adaptable to
many different situations, including coal mining, hard
rock mining, slope stability, foundation stability and
tunnelling.
Q-system of rock mass classification
• This system of rock mass classification was developed in
Norway by Barton et. al. (1974) of Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute (NGI)
• This system was proposed on the basis of an analysis of
212 tunnel case histories by (Singh and Goel, 1991).
• It is a quantitative classification system and facilitates
the design of tunnel supports.
• The main difference between the RMR and Q is the fact
that RMR system takes into account the conditions of all
discontinuities whereas the Q system considers the
unfavourable discontinuity set only.
 Rock Tunneling Quality Index
( Q-value)
The rock mass quality ‘Q’ value was described as:
Q = [RQD/ Jn] [Jr / Ja] [Jw /SRF]
Where
RQD= Deere’s Rock Quality Designation,= 115- 3.3 Jv
Jn= Joint set number,
Jr= Joint roughness number for critically oriented joint
set, Ja = Joint alteration number for critically oriented
joint set, Jw= Joint water reduction factor,
SRF = Stress Reduction Factor to consider in situ stresses,
Jv= Volumetric Joint Count.
The main aim of Q-System is to create preliminary
empirical design of support system for tunnels.
• The numerical value of Q varies on a logarithmic (base 10) scale
from 0.001 to 1000 .
• RQD/ Jn = measure of block size ,
• Jr/Ja = roughness and frictional characteristics joint wall and
infilling materials
• Jw/ SRF = active stress upon the joint and measurement of the
joint water pressure
Q- value, rock mass is classified in various groups as:
Q- value range Rock mass quality
0.001- 0.01 Exceptionally poor
0.01-0.1 Extremely poor
0.1- 1.0 Very poor
1.0-4 Poor
4-10 Fair
10-40 Good
40-100 Very good
100-400 Extremely good
400- 1000 Exceptionally
• This system is based on numerical assessment of
the rock mass quality using six different
parameters
– RQD
– Number of Joint sets
– Roughness of the most unfavourable discontinuity
– Degree of alteration or filling along the weakest joint
– Water inflow and
– Stress condition (Stress Reduction Factor)
 Attitude of Geological Structures
Planner Feature
• Dip( Dip Direction, Dip Amount)
• Strike
Linear Feature
• Plunge
• Trend
 Stereographic Projection
• The stereographic projection allows the
three dimensional orientation data to be
represented and analyzed in two dimensions.
• Stereographic presentations remove one
dimension from consideration so that lines or
points can represent planes, and points can
represent lines.
• An important limitation of stereographic
projections is that they consider only angular
relationships between lines and planes, and do
not represent the position or size of the feature.
 Uses of Stereographic Projection
Stereographic projection can be used in
• Landslide hazard/slope failure studies
• Earthquake studies
• Structural geological analysis
• Fracture analyses used in hydrogeology
and/or groundwater pollution potentials
• Geotechnical Engineering
• Practically anything that deals with
relative orientations of planes and lines
 Stereographic Projection
• The stereographic projection is the projection in the
sphere.
• The sphere is divided into two equal hemispheres by a
horizontal (equatorial) plane
• The circumference of the equatorial plane is called
primitive circle
.• There are two type of projections- equal area and
equal angle projection.
• The equal area projection also known as Lambert or
Schmidt projection
• Equal angle projection also known as Wulff projection
that is obtained by projection of a point on the
surface of the sphere at the horizontal plane passing
through the center of the sphere
• Small circles look like lines of latitude
• You can plot two types of features on a stereonet, a line
(e.g. trend and plunge) and a plane (e.g. a strike and
dip or dip direction and a dip).
• A line plots as a point and a plane plots as a great
circle.
• All elements plotted pass through the Centre of
the hemisphere, and their projection reflects where
the plane or line intersects the outer hemispheric
surface
• For plotting a line or a plane on a stereonet we use
an overlay or a tracing paper placed over the net and
attached at the centre point with a thumb-tack.
• The outline of the net or the circumference is traced on
the overlay and the direction points (N,E, S and W)
points are marked.
• The projection of the line or plane is thus obtained in
Kinematics analysis of discontinuity of
slope