APPLYING

PROPERTIES OF
A WELL-
WRITTEN TEXT
 The organization of ideas is
invariability one of the aspects in
writing which is often highly
valued. A well-written text is built
around effective paragraphing, on
coherence and on established
conventions.
 A well-organized piece of
writing is not only clear but also
logical and aesthetic. Existence of
organizational markers and
coherent flow of ideas are
typically the focus in evaluation
of writing.
 FOUR
FUNDAMENTAL
PROPERTIES OF A
WELL-WRITTEN
TEXT
 1. ORGANIZATION
 Strong organization constitutes
proper paragraphing and logical
order of presentation of ideas.
 Ostrom (1978) averred that it is
a way of making visible to the
reader the stages in writer’s
 1. ORGANIZATION
 Paragraphing is dividing a text
into paragraphs.
 The unity and coherence of ideas
among sentences is what makes
the paragraph.
 It is essentially a unit of thought
 1. ORGANIZATION
 Blakesley and Hoogeveen (2008)
in the Thomsom Handbook, shed
light on the nature of rethorical
situation.
 1. ORGANIZATION
 To them, the form, length, style
and positioning of paragraphs
will vary, depending on the
nature and conventions of the
medium (print or digital), the
interface (size and type of paper,
screen resolution and size), and
 1. ORGANIZATION
“In short, the rethorical situation
should always guide your use of
paragraphing. When you understand the
paragraph conventions, your audience and
purpose, your rethorical situation, your
writing’s subject matter, you will be in the
best position to decide how to use
paragraphs strategically and effectively to
 THERE ARE BASICS TO A
WELL- ORGANIZED
PARAGRAPHS
 First, each paragraph must be
built around a single idea
termed as the controlling idea.
 Next, create a topic sentence
which is generally written as
opening sentence of the
 THERE ARE BASICS TO A
WELL- ORGANIZED
PARAGRAPHS
 Then, an appropriate technique
from a variety of ways of
developing a paragraph must be
employed to develop the topic
sentence/key idea.
 THERE ARE BASICS TO A
WELL- ORGANIZED
PARAGRAPHS
 Finally, in order to achieve unity,
appropriate connectives between
and within paragraphs must be
used.
 The formula of STTC (single idea,
topic sentence, appropriate
technique and connectives) makes a
 2. COHERENCE AND
COHESION
 Coherence and cohesion are two
basic features that facilitate
textual continuity.
 The two terms are connected
but cannot be used
interchangeably.
 COHERENCE COHESION
Refers to the Cohesion of writing is
rhetorical aspects of focused on the
grammatical aspects of
your writing, which
writing.
include developing
Refers to the degree to
your argument,
which sentences (or even
synthesizing and different parts of one
integrating readings, sentence) are connected
organizing and so that the flow of ideas
clarifying ideas. is easily to follow.
It means the overall
understandability of
 COHERENCE COHESION
Coherence is based Cohesion has nothing to
more on logic of the do with the content but
rather on whether the
ideas and how they
paragraph has well
are presented rather connected or merely a
than on the language group of unrelated
that is used to sentences. Is serves as
express these ideas. the glue that holds the
structure together. Good
cohesion leads to good
coherence.
 TRANSITIONAL
DEVICES
1. ADDITION – again, also, and,
and then, besides, equally
important, finally, first, further,
furthermore, in addition, in the
first place, last, moreover, next,
second, still, too.
2. COMPARISON – also, in the
 TRANSITIONAL
DEVICES
3. CONCESSION – granted, naturally,
of course
4. CONTRAST – although, and yet, at
the same time, but at the same time,
despite that, even so, even though,
for all that, however, in contrast, in
spite of, instead, nevertheless,
notwithstanding, on the contrary, on
 TRANSITIONAL
DEVICES
5. EMPHASIS – certainly, indeed, in
fact, of course.
6. EXAMPLE OR ILLUSTRATION –
after all, as an illustration, even,
for example, for instance, in
conclusion, indeed, in fact, in other
words, in short, it is true, of course,
namely, specifically, that is to
 TRANSITIONAL
DEVICES
7. SUMMARY – all in all,
altogether, as has been said,
finally, in brief, in conclusion, in
other words, in particular, in
short, in simpler terms, in
summary, on the whole, that is,
 TRANSITIONAL
DEVICES
8. TIME SEQUENCE – after a while,
afterward, again, also, and then, as long as,
at last, at length, at that time, before,
besides, earlier, eventually, finally, formerly,
further furthermore, in addition, in the first
place, in
the past, last, lately, meanwhile, moreover,
next, now, presently, second, shortly,
simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still,
 3. LANGUAGE
 As a writer, it is important not
only to think about what you say,
but how you say it. In order to
choose the most effective
language, the writer must
consider the objective of the
 3. LANGUAGE
 Appropriate language increases
one’s credibility, strengthens his
argument and keeps his
audience.
 The overview of the different
aspects of using appropriate
1. LEVELS OF FORMALITY
- Writing in a style that your
audience expects and that fits your
purpose is key to successful writing.
2. IN-GROUP JARGON
- Only use in-group jargon when
you are writing for members of that
group. You should never use jargon
for a general audience without first
explaining it.
3. SLANG AND IDIOMATIC
EXPRESSIONS
- Avoid using slang or idiomatic
expressions in general academic
writing.
4. DECEITFUL LANGUAGE AND
EUPHEMISMS
- Avoid using euphemisms (words
that veil the truth, such as ‘collateral
5. BIASED LANGUAGE
- Avoid using any biased language
including language with a racial,
ethnic, group, or gender bias or
language that is stereotypical.
 THE SIX
CHARACTERISTI
CS OF
EFFECTIVE
LANGUAGE
1. CONCRETE AND SPECIFIC
LANGUAGE
- Concrete language includes
descriptions which creates
tangible images with details the
reader can visualize. Abstract
Language is vague and obscure,
and does not bring to mind
specific visual images.
EXAMPLES:
He is a bad roommate.
He is lazy and discourteous.
He is untidy and unclean.
He doesn’t clean up his own
messes.
He leaves his dirty dishes on
the kitchen counter.
2. CONCISE LANGUAGE
- A hallmark of effective
writers is the ability to express
the desired message in as few
words as possible. Good writers,
in other words, use language
which is straightforward and to-
the-point. Consider the following
1. It is widely discussed by employees
that many of them will be forced to
change jobs and take on new
responsibilities when the merger takes
place between two companies.
2. Before making a decision about
whether the person on trial is guilty or
innocent in this case, the members of the
jury should be sure to carefully think
about, ponder and reflect on all of the
3. FAMILIAR LANGUAGE
- familiar language is that
which the readers easily
recognize and understand
because they use it on a regular
basis.
 One of the most important
functions of language is to
build homophily or a sense of
 Language, which is foreign
and unfamiliar to the reader
tends to emphasize the
differences between writer and
reader, and makes the
message difficult to
understand.
 By using language that is
familiar to the reader, the
 An assignment give to a class
of business students by their
philosophy professor:
“The presently assigned paper
necessitates an eloquently
articulated analysis of the
Existentialist perspective as it
pertains to contemporary living.
You should adumbrate the points
A letter sent to high school students
warning them of the risks of an
unhealthy diet:
“Individuals who maintain a diet
of high fat content are exposed to an
increased risk of developing
Atherosclerosis, which is a buildup of
fat deposits on the inner walls of the
arteries. This condition can reduce
or cut off the flow of blood in the
4. PRECISE AND CLEAR
LANGUAGE
- the use of appropriate
language is a tricky matter
because the meaning of words is
relative and situational. The more
precise and clear one’s use if
language becomes, the fewer the
number of possible
5. CONSTRUCTIVE LANGUAGE
- constructive language
phrases a potentially
negative message in a
positive way, whereas
destructive language
directs blame and criticism
Readers are likely to become
defensive when the writer’s language
expresses any or all of the following:
 Superiority over the reader
 Indifference or apathy about an
issue of importance to the reader
 Negative evaluation or judgement
of the reader(as opposed to neutral
descriptions or observations)
 Command or control over the
reader.
 Skepticism or doubt about the
reader’s credibility or the
legitimacy of their claims.
BOSS TO EMPLOYEE:
“Your job performance recently has
been unacceptable and there are no
excuses for it. You have claimed that you
are having some serious personal
problems, but even if this is true, you
6. FORMALITY OF LANGUAGE
- The formality of the language
one uses should match the
formality of the situation and the
relationship between the writer
and the reader.
VERY FORMAL:
Exceedingly large segments of
the population are expressing
their discontent with medical
practitioners who appear to be
more engrossed in amassing
financial assets than in providing
efficacious care to people with
FORMAL:
A large number of consumers
are complaining about medical
doctors who are apparently more
interested in making money than
I providing effective health care.
INFORMAL:
A lot of people are unhappy
with their doctors who only seem
to care about how much money
they make, and not about giving
their patients good care.
 4. MECHANICS
Mechanics describe the technical
aspects of writing. It specifies the
established conventions for words
that you use – spelling, punctuation,
capitalization etc. A piece if writing
must look worth reading such that it
is not hard to figure out what you are
 MEMORABLE STUDENTS
they are the memorable students
in any class they participate fully
in any mischief they see no point
in volunteering for extra jobs they
delight in distracting their
classmates they take no pleasure
in learning they are never
 (1) MEMORABLE STUDENTS
They are the memorable students.
In any class, they participate
fully. In any mischief, they see no
point. In volunteering for extra
jobs, they delight. In distracting
their classmates, they take no
pleasure. In learning, they are
 (2) MEMORABLE STUDENTS
They are the memorable students
in any class. They participate fully
in any mischief. They see no point
in volunteering for extra jobs.
They delight in distracting their
classmates. They take no pleasure
in learning. They are never
 USING
CRITICAL
READING FOR
THINKING
AND
REASONING
 We read everyday. From day
in to day out, consciously or
unconsciously, we grab or
check any written material,
read it to satisfy our certain
needs. But are we convinced
that this act leads us to look
for, analyze and evaluate a
 Deborah Knott 2012 of New
College Writing Centre
expressed in writing that as a
reader, you are not a passive
participant, but an active
constructor of meaning.
CRITICAL READING
 is dissecting a reading
material.
 It is the art of asking the
text, “Why did it happen?
How did it happen? What
should have been done
instead, or be done
CRITICAL READING
 If this skill is well-developed,
nurtured and enhanced, the
reader is obviously
challenged to reason out and
justify for her thoughts,
ideas and decisions.
 Some authorities share
their piece of knowledge about
the significance of reading and
ways how to develop thinking
and reasoning.
 Baraceros (2005) expressed
that critical reading is
necessary for the students to
know how to examine critically
what they see, feel and read to
be able to make good
judgement or decisions for the
welfare of their countrymen.
 Anthony Shadid 2012, a
journalist, articulated that to
non-critical readers, many
texts offer the truth, and
nothing but the truth. To the
critical reader, any single text
provides but one portrayal of
the facts, on individual’s
 Kurland (2010) noted that
to non-critical readers, texts
provide facts. Readers gain
knowledge by memorizing the
statements within a text.
Critical readers thus recognize
not only what the text says,
but also how that text portrays
According to him, there are three
steps or modes of analysis which are
reflected in three types of reading
and discussion:
What a text says – restatements
(talks about the same topic as the
original text)
What a text does – description
(discussion aspects of discussion
itself)
 SOME
TECHNIQUES
TO DEVELOP
A. THINKING
It is the act of constructing and
deconstructing ideas in both spoken
and written form based on a given
context.
1. Check and analyze the title. Read
further how it is developed and/or
argued in the succeeding statement.
2. Identify the aim of the text. Make
initial arguments about its context.
3. Skim the reading material and
give focus on the entire body.
Identify what might have caused
certain issues/situations and offer
feasible solutions.
4. Make some relevant associations
of the text to your life. In the course
of making connections, the reader
may either be sympathetic or
apathetic depending on the
5. Evaluate the reading material.
Ascertain if the entire text calls for a
debate and eventually come up with
a sound decision/judgement.
B. REASONING
It is the process of expressing
ideas and opinions as well as
justifying a stand based on prior and
existing knowledge and experiences
needed to arrive at a decision.
1. Dare to read everyday. Citing
relevant ideas of experts and
authorities in reading materials
definitely help strengthen one’s
2. Learn to focus to the main ideas
(explicit or implied) and supporting
details mentioned in the argument.
3. Examine the pros and cons of your
argument/resolution. This will help
you weave the flow of your thoughts
presented.
4. Organize your thoughts. Arrange
ideas either in chronological order or
by emphasis (general to specific or
vice versa). Once organized, oral or
written expression becomes
meaningful.
5. Note points for improvement. After
having justified an issue, recheck your
stand based on your power to convince
the reader/audience. Moreover,
EVALUATION
GUIDE FOR
CRITICAL
READING
 ELEMENTS EXPLANATION GUIDE
FOR
EVALUATION
This is the substance of the
text.
Are the input/ideas present
CONTENT comprehensive – covering
the breadth and depth of
the text? Is it
comprehensible?
As a whole, is it appealing
OBJECTIVIT This is the stand of the
Y author about an
issue/article.
Are facts presented? Does
it present both sides of
the argument? Does the
author possess ethical
and moral consideration
in his/her article?
SIGNIFICAN This is the intention, the
CE entire meaning and the
value of the issue/article to
the reader’s life.
Can the reader readily
connect the issues to
his/her life? Is it open for
interaction? How is it
valuable to the reader?
IDENTIFYING
EXPLICIT AND
IMPLICIT
CLAIM IN A
TEXT
 del Gandio J. 2008, said that
a claim is an arguable
statement – an idea that the
rhetor (that is a speaker or
writer) asks an audience to
accept.
 A claim is an opinion, idea or
assertion.
 Campbell and Huxman define
a claim as an assertion.
 They stress how it is an
interference beyond the facts.
In strategic discourse, a
claim is a statement we make
to an audience with an
anticipation that they should
 It is a statement. A claim is
discourse.
 It involves a speaker’s
awareness of an audience.
The very idea of a claim
involves a wish about an
audience.
 It deals with a search for
 It involves anticipation. To
anticipate the audience’s
agreement means we look
hopefully to it, but we are
anxious that they may not
give it.
 A claim thus forwards a
statement that we worry the
TYPES OF
CLAIMS
A. CLAIM OF FACT: A claim
asserts some empirical truth.
• Something that can be
determined by careful observation
of past, present or future.
• Generally, the truth of the
assertion will be determined by
events. But the speaker will offer
information or explanation that
• Claims of facts are those we think
about rightly as being true or false.
Of course, sometimes we cannot
prove something true or false but
we have to say “How likely is it that
it is true?” But the reasons we give
are the reasons we believe the
statement is true or false.
• Argument usually turns on
strength of evidence presented as
CLAIM OF FACT
Examples:
1. Research studies are
conducted to improve human
condition.
2. Climate Change has already
become an issue in the country.
3. Success of teaching depends
upon the creativity of the teacher.
B. CLAIM OF JUDGEMENT OR
VALUE: A claim asserts a
judgement of some sort.
• Look for keywords that are matter
of judgement rather than fact:
good, well, kind, useful, desirable,
etc.
• A claim is based on things we like
or dislike. Thus it deals with
• Speakers provide the reasoning for
their judgement, but ultimately, it
is assent to the reasons rather than
comparison to fact that determines
the agreement to the claim.
• argument usually turns on whether
the underlying value of the claim is
accepted as a public good.
• Your feel for the argument by
judgement or value has to be
different than that of fact.
Disagreements over values are not
“wrong” I the sense that they are
inaccurate. Rather, they turn on
what is important to us and how
the things that are important to us
to bear on a situation.
Examples:
1. Musical comedy is the best
form of entertainment.
2. Staying with the family with
a limited income is more valuable
than being away earning a lot.
3. Communication is better
than computation.
A. ACTION OR POLICY: A claim
asserts that an action should
be taken.
• Be sensitive to calls that some
action be taken.
• Look for keywords “should” or
“ought”. These words may not
always be present, but if they are,
• Decisions about whether we should
take an action or not are the most
complex of arguments. They turn
on many claims about what
happens if we do take an action or
what happens if we fail to act.
• Arguments usually turns on
whether the reasons for taking the
action outweigh the possible costs
Examples:
1. fetal tissue should be
banned in any research
undertaking.
2. the government should
continue to offer scholarship
program especially to the poor
but bright students.
3. gender equality needs to be
 USING
CONTEXT IN
TEXT
DEVELOPMEN
T
 INTERTEXTUALITY
• Depends on a system of limitations in
our freedom of choice, of exclusions,
since it is by renouncing incompatible
associations within the text that we
come to identify in the intertext their
compatible counterparts.
• - Michael Riffaterre (2010)
• He further states that this
intertextuality is the complete
opposite of hypertextuality
because the former builds a
“structured network” of limits
that will keep the reader on
track (towards the “correct”
interpretation), the latter is a
• Intertextuality is a literary
device that creates an
‘interrelationship between
texts’ and generates related
understanding in separate
works. These references are
made to influence that reader
and add layers of depth to a
• Intertextuality is a literary
discourse strategy utilized in
writers in novels, poetry,
theatre and even in non-written
texts.
• For example an author’s
borrowing and transformation
of a prior text, and a reader’s
 HYPERTEXTUALITY
• Is simply a non-linear way of
presenting information. Rather than
reading or learning about things in the
order that an author, or editor, or
publisher sets out for us, readers of
hypertext may follow their own path,
create their own order—their own
meaning out the material.
• This is accomplished by
creating “links” between
information. These links are
provided so that readers may
‘jump’ to further information
about a specific topic being
discussed.
• Hypertext is particularly useful
as a way to introduce computer-
mediated dialogic interaction in
any writing class because it can
be applied in much the same
way in non-networked classes
and non-networked classes
alike.
 FORMULATI
NG
EVALUATIVE
STATEMENTS
• Evaluation refers to the
making of a value judgement.
• Making value judgement
involves the use of certain
criteria against which we
determine whether something is
good or bad, strong or weak,
beautiful or ugly etc..
• Bunnin and Yu (2004)
disclosed that n philosophy of
language and ethics, some
philosophers suggest that we
distinguish between two kinds
of meaning of expressions.
• Descriptive meaning
contributes to a bare
presentation of facts, as in the
claim “This strawberry is
sweet.”
• Evaluative meaning functions
in a different way by offering an
assessment, as in the claim
• The descriptive meaning of a
statement can be determined by
its truth conditions, while the
evaluative meaning cannot.
• Rama Rao (2010) further
expressed that evaluative
statements over three
components of the attitude:
Likewise he noted that these
concern objects, people, or
events.
Cognitive components of an
attitude
• The beliefs, opinions, knowledge, and
information held by a person
Affective components of an
attitude
• The emotional, or feeling, segment of
an attitude
Behavioral component of an
The following will help you
formulate evaluative statements:
1. Examine the entire text. Scan
the part you find significant. Jot
down notes/reasons what made it
significant.
2. Trace reliable evidence to
support your views and feelings.
3. Have a copy of the strengths
and weaknesses. Once organized,
counter check the statements.
4. Evaluate whether or not your
output covers the essential
elements and it worthy for sharing
with the other readers.
5. Look back and reflect on the
DETERMININ
G TEXTUAL
EVIDENCE
• In the process of evaluating
statements, the reader tends to
assert his/her point for
emphasis or simply put, his/her
claims. Well-thought-of
assertions lead to a meaningful
engagement of a reader to a
Assertion is a stylistic approach
or technique involving a strong
declaration, a forceful or
confident and positive statement
regarding a belief or a fact. Often,
it is without a proof or any
support. Its purpose is to express
TYPES OF
ASSERTIO
N
1. Basic Assertion
It is a simple and straightforward
statement for expressing feelings,
opinions and beliefs such as:
• “I wish I could have expressed this
idea earlier because now, someone
else has taken the credit.
• “Excuse me, first I want to finish my
work then shall go with you.”
2. Emphatic Assertion
It conveys sympathy to someone
and usually has two parts first,
encompasses the recognition of the
feelings or situations of the other
person, and the second, follows a
statement that shows support for
other person’s rights such as:
• “I understand you are busy, and me
too, but it is difficult for me to finish
this project on my own. So, I want you
to help me in completing this project.”
• “I know this is making you angry and
frustrated because you could not get
response yet But I can help you by
giving you an estimate of how long it
might take.”
3. Escalating Assertion
It occurs when someone is not able
to give response to basic assertions of a
person and, therefore, that person
becomes form about him/her such as:
• “If you do not finish this work at 6:00
tonight, I would better take the
services of another worker.”
• “I really want to finish this point
before you start yours.”
4. Language Assertion
It involves “I” language and is
useful for expressing negative
feelings. Nevertheless, it
constructively lays emphasis on a
person’s feelings of anger such as:
• “When you speak harshly, I cannot
work with you because I feel
annoyed. Therefore, I want you to
speak gently and then assign me
task.
• “When I cannot take proper sleep, it
affects my nerves and I feel
irritation. Therefore I like to go to
 CLAIM
AND
COUNTERCLAI
M
 A claim is the central
argument of the text. it can also
be called a thesis, a proposition,
or – if there is only one – simply
the argument.
One of the ways in which
ordinary people can prevent
gingivitis is by gargling twice
 Counterclaims provide an
opposing viewpoint to the central
claim.
One of the ways in which
ordinary people can prevent
gingivitis is by gargling twice
daily with a dentist-approved
mouthwash. However, in a