ATOMS AND

MOLECULES
 THE OBSERVATIONS THAT LED
TO AN ATOMIC VIEW OF MATTER
• Any model of the composition of matter
had to explain three so-called mass laws:
the law of mass conservation, the law of
definite (or constant) composition, and the
law of multiple proportions.
 MASS CONSERVATION
• the total mass of substances does not
change during a chemical reaction. The
number of substances may change and,
by definition, their properties must, but
the total amount of matter remains
constant.

Figure 2.2 The law of mass

conservation.
 Definite Composition
• states that no matter what its source, a particular
compound is composed of the same elements in the same
parts (fractions) by mass.

16.0 g
marbles
Calculating the Mass of an Element in a
Compound
• Problem Pitchblende is the most
important compound of uranium. Mass
analysis of an 84.2-g sample shows that it
contains 71.4 g of uranium, with oxygen
the only other element. How many grams
of uranium are in 102 kg of pitchblende?
 Multiple Proportions
• if elements A and B react to form two compounds, the different
masses of B that combine with a fixed mass of A can be expressed
as a ratio of small whole numbers.
Dalton’s Atomic
Theory
John Dalton
 This theory is based on the
following set of postulates:

• 1. Elements are made up

of very small particles
known as atoms.
• 2. All the atoms of an element are
identical in mass and size, and are
different from the atoms of another
element.
• Dalton used the different shapes or
figures to represent different
elements, as follows:
3. Compounds are composed of
atoms of more than one element,
combined in definite ratios with
whole number values.
4. During a chemical reaction, atoms
combine, separate, or rearrange. No
atoms are created and no atoms
disappear.
• during the time of Dalton, the
atom was believed to be the
smallest particle comprising
substances. However, before the
end of the 19th century,
experiments provided proof of
the existence of smaller particles
within the atom.
Structure of the Atom
• a. Atomic number = number of
protons = number of electrons
in a neutral atom

• b. Mass number = number of

protons + number of neutrons
• Isotopes – atoms of
an element having the
same atomic number
but different mass
number.
• The existence of isotopes was
shown by mass spectroscopy
experiments, wherein
elements were found to be
composed of several types of
atoms, each with different
masses.
• a. The atomic number identifies an
element. The atoms of isotopes of
an element have the same number
of protons and electrons.

• b. The atoms of isotopes of an

element differ in the number of
neutrons.
 EXAMPLE
• Two atoms have 17 protons each, but the first
atom contains 18 neutrons and the second
contains 20 neutrons. Show that their atomic
numbers are the same but that their mass
numbers differ.
 PRACTICE PROBLEM
• Two atoms have mass number 119, but one
has 69 neutrons and the other 70 neutrons.
Are they isotopes of each other?
ATOMIC MASSES OF AN ELEMENTS
• The mass of an atom is measured relative to
the mass of an atomic standard.
• Atomic mass is also known as atomic weight.
Atomic mass is the weighted average mass of
an atom of an element based on the relative
natural abundance of that element's isotopes.
 example of Finding Atomic Mass from
Isotopic Composition
• Silver (Ag; Z 5 47) has 46 known isotopes, but only two
occur naturally, 107Ag and 109Ag. Given the following
data, calculate the atomic mass of Ag:
 sample problem
• The chlorine present in PVC has two stable
isotopes. 35Cl with a mass of 34.97 amu
makes up 75.77% of the natural chlorine found.
The other isotope is 37Cl, whose mass is 36.95
amu. What is the atomic mass of chlorine?
 ELEMENTS: A FIRST LOOK
AT THE PERIODIC TABLE
• At the end of the 18th century, Lavoisier compiled
a list of the 23 elements known at that time; by
1870, 65 were known; by 1925, 88; today, there
are 118
• In 1871, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev
(1836–1907) published the most successful of
these organizing schemes as a table of the
elements listed by increasing atomic mass and
arranged so that elements with similar chemical
properties fell in the same column
 Classifying the Elements
• clearest ways to classify the elements is as metals,
nonmetals, and metalloids.
• The metals (three shades of blue in Figure 2.9) lie in the
large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of
the elements are metals, including many main-group
elements and all the transition and inner transition elements.
They are generally shiny solids at room temperature
(mercury is the only liquid) that conduct heat and electricity
well. They can be tooled into sheets (are malleable) and
wires (are ductile).
• The nonmetals (yellow) lie in the small upper-right portion of
the table. They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at room
temperature (bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and
electricity poorly.
• The metalloids (green; also called semimetals), which lie
along the staircase line, have properties between those of
metals and nonmetals.
 COMPOUNDS : INTRODUCTION
TO BONDING
• Elements combine in two general ways
and both involve the electrons of the
atoms of interacting elements:
• 1. Transferring electrons from one element
to another to form ionic compounds
• 2. Sharing electrons between atoms of
different elements to form covalent
compounds
 The Formation of Ionic
Compounds
• Ionic compounds are composed of ions, charged
particles that form when an atom (or small group
of atoms) gains or loses one or more electrons.
The simplest type of ionic compound is a binary
ionic compound, one composed of two
elements. It typically forms when a metal reacts
with a nonmetal:
• Each metal atom loses one or more electrons and
becomes a cation, a positively charged ion.
• Each nonmetal atom gains one or more of the
electrons lost by the metal atom and becomes an
anion, a negatively charged ion.
 11p 17p+
+ 18n0
12n0

A The elements (lab view)

B The elements (atomic view)

 Predicting the Number of
Electrons Lost or Gained
• Can we predict the number of electrons a given atom
will lose or gain when it forms an ion? For A-group
elements, we usually find that metal atoms lose
electrons and nonmetal atoms gain electrons to form
ions with the same number of electrons as in an atom
of the nearest noble gas [Group 8A(18)]. Noble gases
have a stability that is related to their number (and
arrangement) of electrons. Thus, a sodium atom (11)
can attain the stability of a neon atom (10), the
nearest noble gas, by losing one electron. Similarly, a
chlorine atom (17) attains the stability of an argon
atom (18 ), its nearest noble gas, by gaining one
electron.
 Predicting the Number of
Electrons Lost or Gained
• Metals lose electrons: elements in Group 1A(1)
lose one electron, elements in Group 2A(2) lose
two, and aluminum in Group 3A(13) loses three.
• Nonmetals gain electrons: elements in Group
7A(17) gain one electron, oxygen
and sulfur in Group 6A(16) gain two, and nitrogen
in Group 5A(15) gains three.

Figure 2.13 The relationship

between ion formed and the nearest
 The Formation of Covalent
Substances
• Covalent substances form when atoms of
elements share electrons, which usually occurs
between nonmetals.

Atoms far apart: No interactions.

The Formation of Covalent
Substances
 Distinguishing the Entities in
Covalent and Ionic Substances
• There are two key distinctions between the chemical
entities in covalent substances and those in ionic
substances.
1. Most covalent substances consist of molecules. A cup of
water, for example, consists of individual water molecules
lying near each other. In contrast, under ordinary
conditions, there are no molecules in an ionic compound.
2. The nature of the particles attracting each other in
covalent and in ionic substances is fundamentally
different. Covalent bonding involves the mutual attraction
between two (positively charged) nuclei and the two
(negatively charged) electrons that reside between them.
Ionic bonding involves the mutual attraction between
positive and negative ions.
 Polyatomic Ions: Covalent
Bonds Within Ions
• Many ionic compounds contain polyatomic ions, which consist of
two or more atoms bonded covalently and have a net positive or
negative charge.
 SUMMARY
• Although a few elements occur uncombined in nature, the
great majority exist in compounds.
• Ionic compounds form when a metal transfers electrons to a
nonmetal, and the resulting positive and negative ions attract
each other to form a three-dimensional array. In many cases,
metal atoms lose and nonmetal atoms gain enough electrons
to attain the same number of electrons as in atoms of the
nearest noble gas.
• Covalent compounds form when elements, usually
nonmetals, share electrons. Each covalent bond is an electron
pair mutually attracted by two atomic nuclei.
• Monatomic ions are derived from single atoms. Polyatomic
ions consist of two or more covalently bonded atoms that
have a net positive or negative charge due to a deficit or
excess of electrons.
COMPOUNDS: FORMULAS, NAMES,
AND MASSES

Binary Ionic
Compounds
Let’s begin with two general rules:
• For all ionic compounds, names and formulas give
the positive ion (cation) first and the negative ion
(anion) second.
• For all binary ionic compounds, the name of the
cation is the name of the metal, and the name of
the anion has the suffix -ide added to the root of
the name of the nonmetal.
formula unit
SAMPLE PROBLEM: Naming Binary
Ionic Compounds
Problem Name the ionic compound formed from
the following pairs of elements and write its
formula:
(a) Magnesium and nitrogen
(b) Iodine and cadmium
(c) Strontium and fluorine
(d) Sulfur and cesium
• For cations, the name of the
element is unchanged.
• If an element can form two ions
of different charges, the name,
which is usually derived from its
Latin name, is modified by the
suffix –ic for the ion with the
higher charge, and –ous for ions
with the lower charge.
•For anions, the
name of the
element is modified
by the suffix –ide.
Name the
following:
•Zn2+
•Br-
•S2-
•O2-
•Fe2+
• I-
•Fe3+
• Zinc ion
• Bromide ion
• Sulfide ion
• Oxide ion
• Ferrous ion/ iron (II) ion
• Iodide
• Ferric ion/ iron (III) ion
• Several anions are polyatomic
and are named based on the
atomic constituents and the
suffix – ide.

• a. OH- – hydroxide ion

• b. CN- – cyanide ion
• A number of polyatomic anions
containing oxygen atoms are
named based on the root word
of the central (or non-oxygen)
atom and the suffix –ate for
the one with more oxygen
atoms and –ite for the one
with less oxygen atom.
• a. NO3-
• b. NO2-
• c. SO32-
• d. SO42-
• e. PO43-
• a. NO3- – nitrate ion
• b. NO2- – nitrite ion
• c. SO32- – sulfite ion
• d. SO42- – sulfate ion
• e. PO43- – phosphate
ion
 Naming of compounds

• Binary compounds – made up

of two elements.
• Rules for naming (in the two
groups) binary compounds:
• • For all ionic compounds, names and
formulas give the positive ion (cation) first
and the negative ion (anion) second.
• • For all binary ionic compounds, the name of
the cation is the name of the metal, and the
name of the anion has the suffi x -ide added to
the root of the name of the nonmetal.
•i. NaI
•ii. MgCl2
•iii.FeS
•iv. K2O
• i. NaI – sodium iodide
• ii. MgCl2 – magnesium
chloride
• iii. FeS – iron (II) sulfide
• iv. K2O – potassium
oxide
• Molecular/Covalent compounds
– made up of two non-metals.
• They are named by giving the
name of the first nonmetal and
then the second nonmetal,
modified by the ending ide.
• Molecular compounds are
usually gases.
•i. HCl
•ii. CO2
•iii.SO3
• i. HCl – hydrogen
chloride
• ii. CO2 – carbon dioxide
• iii. SO3 – sulfur trioxide
• Ternary compounds – made up
of three elements
• The naming of ternary
compounds follows the same
rule as that of the binary ionic
compound: the name of the
cation is given first, followed
by the name of the anion.
•i. NaNO3
•ii. BaCrO4
•iii.K2SO4
• i. NaNO3 – sodium
nitrate
• ii. BaCrO4 – barium
chromate
• iii. K2SO4 –
potassium sulfate
Naming of
acids
•Acids – yield
hydrogen ions in
aqueous solutions.
• Binary acids – composed of
hydrogen and another
element, usually a nonmetal.
• The first part of the name
starts with the prefix hydro-
followed by the name of the
element, modified by the
ending –ic.
• The second part consists
of the word ‘acid’.
• Name = hydro- (root
name of element) -ic +
acid
•i. HCl
•ii. H2S
•iii. HI
• i. HCl – hydrochloric
acid
• ii. H2S – hydrosulfuric
acid
• iii. HI – hydroiodic acid
• Ternary acids – made up of
hydrogen and an anion, usually
containing oxygen.
• The first part of the name
consists of the root word of the
name of the element, modified
by the ending –ic.
• The second part consists of
the word ‘acid’. If there is
another acid with the same
atoms, the suffix –ous is used
to denote the one with less
number of atoms.
• Name = (root name of
element) -ic (or –ous) + acid
• i. HNO3
• ii. HNO2
• iii.H2SO4
• iv. H2SO3
• v. H3PO4
• i. HNO3 – nitric acid
• ii. HNO2 – nitrous acid
• iii. H2SO4 – sulfuric acid

• iv. H2SO3 – sulfurous acid

• Write the formula of the
compound. Emphasize that in
writing the formula, the total
positive charges of the cations
should be equal to the total of
the negative charges of the
anion. The net charge should be
zero.
• i. Silver nitrate
• ii. Potassium iodide
• iii.Nitrogen dioxide
• iv. Barium chloride
• v. Hydrobromic acid
• i. Silver nitrate – AgNO3
• ii. Potassium iodide – KI
• iii. Nitrogen dioxide – NO2
• iv. Barium chloride – BaCl2
• v. Hydrobromic acid – HBr
 Molecules
• A molecule is a combination of two or more
atoms that are held together by chemical
bonds, such as covalent bonds and ionic
bonds. A molecule is the smallest unit of a
compound that still displays the properties
associated with that compound.
• A mole is defined as the quantity of a substance
that has the same number of particles as are
found in 12.000 grams of carbon-12.
• One mole of a compound contains 6.022x10^23
molecules of the compound. The mass of one
mole of a compound is called its molar weight or
molar mass. The units for molar weight or molar
mass are grams per mole.
• For example, if you know there are 3.35 x 10^22 water
molecules in a gram of water and want to find how
many moles of water this is:
• moles of water = molecules of water / Avogadro's
number

• moles of water = 3.35 x 10^22 / 6.02 x 10^23

• moles of water = 0.556 x 10-1 or 0.056 moles in 1

gram of water
 example
• a) Calculate the number of molecules in 5.00
mol of NH3. (b) Calculate the mass of 5.00 mol
of NH3.
 Percent Composition
• The percentage composition of a given
compound is defined as the ratio of the
amount of each element to the total amount
of individual elements present in the
compound multiplied by 100
• The percent composition of any compound
expresses its composition in terms of all the
elements present.
 example
• Calculate the percent composition of NH4NO3
(Ammonium Nitrate), another fertilizer.
 Chemical Formula

• Is used to express the

composition of molecules
and ionic compounds in
terms of chemical symbols.
• If there is more than one atom present, a
numerical subscript is used.

Examples are the following:

a. O2 – oxygen gas
b. H2O – water
c. NaOH – sodium hydroxide (liquid Sosa)
d. HCl – hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid)
 Two types of chemical formulas:
• Molecular formula – gives the
composition of the molecule, in
terms of the actual number of atoms
present.
Examples
i. C6H12O6
ii. K3PO4
iii. Na2C2O4
 Two types of chemical formulas:
• Empirical formula – gives the
composition of the molecule, in
terms of the smallest ratio of the
number of atoms present.
Examples are the following:
• i. CH2O
• ii. NaCO2
 example
• Calculate the empirical formula of glucose, a
simple sugar, if a certain sample contains
393.4 g of carbon, 66.07 g of hydrogen, and
524.2 g of oxygen.
 example
• Calculate the empirical formula of a
compound composed of 52.9% carbon and
47.1% oxygen.
 example
• Determine the molecular formula of
a compound with empirical formula
CH2 and molecular mass 98.0 amu.