Foundation Engineering

Dr. Sanku Konai

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology Durgapur
Shallow foundation

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Pile Foundation

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Knowledge required for foundation design

 Load coming on foundation

 Requirement of local building code
 The behavior of that will support the
foundation system
 The geological condition of soil

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Geotechnical properties of soil

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 Grain Size Distribution
The grain-size distribution of soils is determined by means of sieves and/or a
hydrometer analysis, and the results are expressed in the form of a
cumulative semi-log plot of percentage finer versus grain diameter.

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D60 D30
CU  CC 
Effective size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size distribution

D10 curve corresponding to 10% finer. The effective size of a granular soil is a good
measure to estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soils. D10 .D60
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Weight Volume relationships of soils
Weight Volume relationships of soils
PHASE DIAGRAM

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Weight Volume relationships of soils

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 Weight Volume relationships of soils

• Relationship among e, S, w, and Gs

wGs eS

• Relationship among g, e, S and Gs

(Gs  eS )
 w
1 e

very useful relations for solving THREE-PHASE RELATIONSHIPS.

 Density Index or Relative Density

• The density index is defined as,

Dr or ID = (emax – e) /( emax – emin)
Where,
emax = void ratio in the loosest state
emin = void ratio in the densest state
e = natural void ratio of the deposit
• This term is used for cohesion less soils only.
• When the natural state of the cohesionless soil is in
the loosest form, emax= e.
Atterberg Limit
 Hydraulic Conductivity or Permeability
Darcy (1856) proposed the following equation for calculating the velocity of flow 0f water
through soil,
v=ki
Where, v= Discharge velocity (cm/s), k=hydraulic conductivity (cm/s) i=hydraulic
gradient =Δh/L

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Effective stress of soil

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 Consolidation of soil

• The process, involving a gradual compression occurring

simultaneously with a flow of water out of the mass and
with a gradual transfer of the applied pressure from the
pore water to the mineral skeleton is called
consolidation.
• The process opposite to consolidation is called swelling,
which involves an increase in the water content due to
an increase in the volume of the voids.

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 Shear strength of soils

 f c   tan 
Where, C =Cohesion, ɸ= Angle of friction, = total normal stress, f= maximum
shear stress

ɸ
 nve lope
ilu ree
Fa

c
σ3 σ1 
 TYPES OF SHEAR TEST

To find out c and ɸ following Laboratory Tests

can be done:

a) Direct Shear test

b) Triaxial Compression (CD, CU, UU)
c) Unconfined Compression test (UC)
Foundation

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 Foundation

It is the bottom most structural element of the sub

structure which transmits the structural load into
the soil underneath/surrounding without causing
shear failure or bearing capacity failure and
excessive settlement.

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 Super-Structure and Sub- Structure

The part of the structure which is above the GSL

and can be seen with naked eye is known as
Super-Structure.
That part of structure which is below the GSL and
can not be seen with naked eyes is known as Sub-
Structure.

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Foundation Depth (Df):
It is the depth below the lowest adjacent
ground to the bottom of the foundation.
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 Types of Foundation
Foundation may be characterized as being either “
Shallow” or “Deep”.

1. Shallow Foundation:
Are those located just below the lowest part of the super structure which they
support ( and get support from the soil just beneath the footing) and a least
width generally greater than their depth beneath the ground surface,
i.e Df / B < 1

2. Deep Foundations:
Are those which extend considerably deeper into the earth ( and get
supported
from the side friction (skin friction) and / or bottom (end bearing) and
generally with a foundation depth to width ratio (Df/B) exceeding 15.
Moderately deep foundation where (Df/B) is between 1 and 15
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 Shallow Foundation:

Foundation is placed immediately lowest part of the super structure, is termed

as Shallow foundation.

Why we use shallow foundation?

‐ To distribute the structural loads over a wide horizontal area at a shallow

depth below the ground level.

-For most of the residential buildings or buildings with moderate height or

multistoreyed building on soil with sufficient strength, shallow foundation is
used from economical consideration.

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When Shallow foundation is adopted:

Near surface soil should be strong enough

Foundation structures should be able to sustain the

applied loads without exceeding the safe bearing
capacity of the soil.

 The settlement of the structure should be should

be within the tolerable limits.
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 When shallow foundation avoided :

When the upper soil layer is highly

compressible and too weak
In the case of Expansive soils
In case of Bridge abutments and piers
because of soil erosion at the ground surface
Soils such as loess are collapsible in nature

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 TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION:
1. Spread footing: This type of foundation supports one column only
as shown below. This footing is also known as Pad footing or
isolated footing. It can be square or rectangular in shape. This type
of footing is the easiest to design and construct and most economical
therefore.

Fig: Pad Footing 29

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 Types of Shallow Foundation:
2. Combined footing:
• When a spread footing supports the load of more than one
column or wall.
• While these footings are usually rectangular in shape, these can
be trapezoidal ( to accommodate unequal column loading or
close property lines)

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Fig: Combined Footings
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Fig: Combined Footings
 TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION:
3. Strip Footing or Continuous Footing:
• If a footing is extended in one direction to support a long structure
such as wall, it is called a continuous footing or a wall footing or a
strip footing.
• For this type of footing , Length to Breadth ratio (L/B) is very High.

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 Types of Shallow Foundation:
4. Strap footing: : A strap footing comprises of two or more
footings of individual columns, connected by a beam, called a
strap. It is also called as a cantilever footing or pump-handle
foundation.
This form accommodates wide column spacing's or close property
lines.
Strap is designed as a rigid beam to with stand bending moments,
shear stresses.
The strap simply acts as a connecting beam and does not take any
soil reaction.
To make this sure, soil below is dug and made loose

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Types of Shallow Foundation:

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Fig: Strap Footings
Types of Shallow Foundation:

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Fig: Strap Footings
 Types of Shallow Foundation:
5. Raft Foundation or Mat Foundation:
• A raft foundation is a combined footing that covers the entire
area beneath a structure and supports all the walls and
columns.
• These are usually considered where the base soil has a low
bearing capacity and / or column loads are so large that the
sum of areas of all individual or combined footings exceeds
one half the total building area ( to economize on frame
costs).

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 3
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Fig: Raft Foundation

 Fig- Raft foundations

Requirements for the raft foundations:

The allowable soil pressure is low, or the building loads are heavy

Use of spread footings would cover more than one-half of the area

 Soil is sufficiently erratic so that the differential settlement difficult to

control
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The Choice of particular types of
foundation depends on
• Magnitude of loads
• The nature of sub soil strata
• The nature of superstructure and its
specific requirements

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 LOCATION AND DEPTH CRITERIA OF FOUNDATION:
As per IS 1904-1986

• Foundation should be at least 50 cm below the natural

ground surface
• Foundation must be placed below the zone of volume
change, where the volume change of soil is expected
• The foundation must be place in a zone where frost action
can be avoided.
• Foundation depth of a structure in a river must be
sufficiently below the deepest scour level.
• Foundation depth should be sufficient so that effect due to
seasonal change are not important to that foundation
• Construction activities above water supply lines, sewage
pipes are not allowed.
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 LOCATION AND DEPTH CRITERIA OF FOUNDATION:
As per IS 1904-1986
Foundation on sloping Ground
•Horizontal distance from the edge of foundation should be minimum 900mm
for soil and 600mm for Rock
•If line from edge of footing is 30 degree for soil and 60 degree for rock with
horizontal line, that line should not intersects with sloping line.

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 LOCATION AND DEPTH CRITERIA OF FOUNDATION:
As per IS 1904-1986
Foundation on sloping ground
•For granular soil: line joining the lower adjacent edge of the upper footing
and lower adjacent edge of the lower footing should not be steeper than two
horizontal and one vertical
•For clayey soil: line joining the lower adjacent edge of the upper footing and
upper adjacent edge of the lower footing should not be steeper than two
horizontal and one vertical

These requirements
are not applicable if
•Adequate provision
is made for lateral
support
•Factor of safety is
above 4

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LOCATION AND DEPTH CRITERIA OF FOUNDATION:

Spacing between existing and new foundation

•The minimum horizontal spacing between existing and new footing shall
be equal to the width of the wider one
•An analysis of bearing capacity and settlement has to be carried out.

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Modes of Shear failure in soil

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 General Shear Failure

• Brittle type stress strain behavior and sudden failure

in soil takes place
• The soil adjacent to the footing bulges
• Failure load is well defined on the load settlement
graph.
• Shallow foundations on dense/hard soil and footing
on saturated NCC under undrained loading.
• Relative density RD > 70%
• Void Ratio < 0.55 dense.

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 Local Shear Failure

• Observed in case of sand and clayey soil of medium

compaction.
• Slight bulging of ground surface adjacent to
foundation
• Significant compression of the soil directly beneath
the foundation
• Peak value of stress in not realized.

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 Punching Shear Failure

• Observed for fairly loose soil

• Poorly defined shear plane
• Soil zones beyond the loaded area are being little
affected
• The failure surface in the soil will not extend to
the ground surface
• Beyond the failure load the load settlement plot
will be steep and practically linear
• Significant penetration of wedge shaped soil
zone beneath the foundation.

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Region of three modes of Shear
failure in soil (Vesic, 1973)

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 Terminology

1. Gross pressure intensity (𝑞g) is the

intensity of pressure at the base of
foundation due to load from super
structure, self weight of foundation
and overburden, if any.
𝐷f
2. Net pressure intensity (𝑞n) is gross
pressure intensity minus the over
burden pressure at the level of base of
foundation prior to excavation.
𝑞n = 𝑞g − 𝛾
𝐷f

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 Terminology
3. Ultimate bearing capacity (𝑞u) is the
minimum gross pressure intensity at which the
soil at the base of foundation fails by shear.

4. Net ultimate bearing capacity (𝑞 nu ) is the

minimum net pressure intensity at which the
soil at the base of foundation fails by shear. 𝐷f
𝑞 nu = 𝑞u − 𝐷f

5. Net safe bearing capacity (𝑞 ns) is the

maximum net pressure intensity to which the
soil at the base of foundation can be subjected
without risk of shear failure.
𝑞 ns = 𝑞 nu/𝐹
where F= factor of safety against shear failure (2.5 or 3). 51
6. Safe bearing capacity (𝑞s) is the maximum gross pressure
intensity to which the soil at the base of foundation can be
subjected without risk of shear failure.
𝑞s = 𝑞ns+ 𝐷f
or more appropriately, 𝑞s = (𝑞nu/F)+ 𝐷f

7. Allowable bearing pressure (𝑞a_net) is the maximum net

intensity to which the soil at the base of foundation can be
subjected without risk of shear failure and excessive settlement
detrimental to the structure.

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 TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY
ASSUMPTIONS:
1) The soil mass is homogeneous and
isotropic.
2) The shear strength of soil can be
represented by Coulomb’s equation.
3) Footing is a strip footing i.e L/B > 10
and the stress distribution is assumed to
be plane. (Plane strain or two
dimensional condition envisaged.
4) The footing has rough base.
5) The ground surface is horizontal.
6) The loading is vertical and
symmetrical.
7) Terzaghi assumed the failure zones to
be formed as General shear failure is
assumed
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TERZAGHI’S BEARING CAPACITY THEORY

qu = cNC + qNq +0.5 γBNγ

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 BEARING CAPACITY OF FOOTINGS (CONT.)

Circular footing :
qf = 1.3 cNc + γDfNq +0.3 γBNγ

Square footing:
qf = 1.3cNc + γDfNq +0.4 γBNγ

Rectangular footing:

qf = (1+0.3 B/L)cNc + γDfNq + (1-0.2 B/L)0.5γBNγ

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Table : Meyerhof’s bearing capacity factors

ɸ Nc Nq Nr

0 5.1 1 0
5 6.5 1.6 0.1
10 8.3 2.5 0.4
15 11 3.9 1.2
20 14.9 6.4 2.9
25 20.7 10.7 6.8
30 30.1 18.4 15.1
35 46.4 33.5 34.4
40 75.3 64.1 79.4

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IS Code (IS: 6403-1981) Recommendations for Bearing Capacity

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