CHAPTER FOUR

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

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 Sampling

 A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative)

collection of units from a population used to
determine truths about that population” .

 Why sample?
 Cost in terms of money, time and manpower
 Accessibility
 Utility e.g. to do diagnostic laboratory test you don’t
draw the whole of patient’s blood.

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 Sampling…..
 Sampling is the process of selecting a representative sample
from populations.
 It Selecting cases (elements)—or locating people (or other units of analysis)
—from a target population in order to study the population.

sampling
Sample
Inference
Population
3
Cont’d
 The process of obtaining information from a subset (sample) of a larger
group (population)
 The results for the sample are then used to make estimates of the larger
group
 Faster and cheaper than asking the entire population
 Two keys
1. Selecting the right people
 Have to be selected scientifically so that they are representative of the population
2. Selecting the right number of the right people
 To minimize sampling errors I.e. choosing the wrong people by chance

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Characteristics of Good Samples

o Representation
 Sample surveys are almost never conducted for the
purposes of describing the particular sample under
study. Rather they are conducted for purposes of
understanding the larger population from which the
sample was initially selected
 A great deal of work has been done over the years in
developing sampling methods that provide
representative samples for the general population.

5
Cont’d

 Factors that influence sample representativeness

 Sampling procedure
 Sample size
 Participation (response)

 When might you sample the entire population?

 When your population is very small
 When you have extensive resources
 When you don’t expect a very high response
o Accessible
o Low cost
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 Basic Terms

 population (also called source population or target

population): is a group of individuals persons, objects, or
items from which samples are taken for measurement.

 It refers to the entire group of individuals or objects to

which researchers are interested in generalizing the
conclusions.

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 cont’d
 Census: A census is a sample consisting of the entire
population.
 It has the following disadvantages:
 Expensive
 Takes a long time
 Cumbersome & therefore inaccurately done ( a careful
sample produces a more accurate data than a census.)
 Sample survey: study sample and draw conclusions about
populations.
 Cheaper in terms of cost,
 Practical & convenient in terms of technicalities
 Saves time & energy.
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 cont’d…

 Sampling Frame: is the list of people from which the

sample is taken. It is the list from which the potential
respondents are drawn.
It should be comprehensive, complete and up-to-date.
Examples of sampling frame: Electoral Register;
Postcode Address File; telephone book and so on.

 Probability samples: with probability sampling methods, each

population element has a known (non-zero) chance of being
chosen for the sample.

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cont’d….

 Non-probability samples: with non-probability sampling

methods, we do not know the probability that each population
element will be chosen, and/or we cannot be sure that each
population element has a non-zero chance of being chosen

 Sampling unit - the unit of selection in the sampling process

 Study unit (study subjects)- the unit on which information is

collected or on which observations are made.
 Example: Familiar examples are families, towns, litters, branches of a
company, individual subjects or schools.
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 cont’d….

• The sampling unit is not necessarily the same as the study

unit.
• If the objective is to determine the availability of latrine,
• then the study unit would be the household;
• If the objective is to determine the prevalence of
trachoma, then the study unit would be the individual.

 Sampling fraction (Sampling interval) - the ratio of the

number of units in the sample to the number of units in the
reference population (N/n)

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Errors in statistical Study

A sample is expected to mirror the population from which it

comes, however, there is no guarantee that any sample will be
precisely representative of the population.
No sample is the exact mirror image of the population .

Sampling or Random

Errors
Non-sampling or
systematic
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a. Sampling error
– random error- the sample selected is not
representative of the population due to chance
– The uncertainty associated with an estimate that is based
on data gathered from a sample of the population rather
than the full population is known as sampling error.
– Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample
estimates around the true population parameters.

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cont’d…

the level of it is controlled by sample size

a larger sample size leads to a smaller sampling error. it
decreases with the increase in the size of the sample,
and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of
homogeneous population.
When n = N ⇒ sampling error = 0

 Can not be avoided or totally eliminated

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The cause of sampling error
Chance: main cause of sampling error and is the error that
occurs just because of bad luck.

Sampling bias: Sampling bias is a tendency to favor the

selection of participants that have particular characteristics.

The chance component (sometimes called random error)

exists no matter how carefully the selection procedures are
implemented, and the only way to minimize chance-sampling
errors is to select a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e s a m p l e .

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b. Non Sampling Error
It is a type of systematic error in the design or conduct of a
sampling procedure which results in distortion of the sample, so
that it is no longer representative of the reference population.

We can eliminate or reduce the non-sampling error (bias) by

careful design of the sampling procedure and not by increasing
the sample size.

It can occur whether the total study population or a sample is

being used.

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 cont’d…
o The basic types of non-sampling error
 Non-response error
 Response or data error
o A non-response error occurs when units selected as part of the
sampling procedure do not respond in whole or in part
 If non-respondents are not different from those that did
respond, there is no non-response error
 When non-respondents constitute a significant proportion of
the sample (about 15% or more)

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cont’d….

o A response or data error is any systematic bias

that occurs during data collection, analysis or
interpretation
 Respondent error (e.g., lying, forgetting, etc.)
 Interviewer bias
 Recording errors
 Poorly designed questionnaires

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cont’d …

Systematic error makes survey results unrepresentative of the

target population by distorting the survey estimates in one
direction.

Random error can distort the results in any given direction but
tend to balance out on average

Thus, the total survey error

sampling error + non-sampling error

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Types of Sampling

How we Selecting the right subjects

o The sample that we draw for our study

determines the generalizability of our
findings.

o Sample should to have a good representation

of the population.

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 Types of Sampling Methods

Sampling Method

Non-Probability Probability Samples

Samples
Simple Stratified
Random
Quota
Judgemental
Systematic Cluster
Convenience
Multistage Random
Sampling
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Probability Sampling Method

The random ("equal chance“) and "independent" components of random

sampling are what makes us confident that the sample has a reasonable
chance of representing the population

What does it mean to be independent? The researchers select each

person for the study separately.

Let us say you were asked to participate in an experiment, enjoyed it,

and told your friends to contact the researcher to volunteer for the study.

 This would be an example of non-independent sampling.

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cont’d …

In probability sampling
A sampling frame exists or can be compiled.
should have an equal or at least a known or nonzero chance
of being included in the sample.
Generalization is possible (from sample to population)
 Simple Random Sampling,
 Systematic Sampling,
 Stratified Random Sampling,
 Cluster Sampling
 Multistage Sampling.
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a. Simple Random Sampling(SRS)

Simple random sampling is the most straightforward of the

random sampling strategies.

To use SRS there should be

o sampling frame for the population
1
o All possible samples of “n” subjects are equally likely ( n ) to occur.
o population is small, relatively homogeneous & readily available

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cont’d …

Procedures to select the sample

 Depending on the complexity of the population, we can use
different tools to select “n” samples from the given sampling
frame.

 These are lottery method,

 table of random number (they are available in the appendix
of many research methods and statistics textbooks) or
 computer generated random number.

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cont’d …

Lottery method is appropriate if the total population is not too

large, otherwise if the population is too large then it will be very
difficult to use lottery method.
Thus, table of random number or computer generated random number is
the feasible method to be used.
Sampling schemes may be
o without replacement- no element can be selected more than once in the
same sample,  N possible samples.

n  
 
o with replacement- an element may appear multiple times in the one
possible samples. n
N
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b. Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic sampling is thought as random, as long as the periodic

interval is determined beforehand and the starting point is random
A method of selecting sample members from a larger population
according to a random starting point and a fixed, periodic interval.
Typically, every nth member is selected from the total population for
inclusion in the sample population.
It is frequently chosen by researchers for its simplicity and its
periodic quality.
it needs the population to be homogeneous, however the method
does not require frame.

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Cont’d…

• N = 1200, and n = 60
sampling fraction = 1200/60 = 20
• List persons from 1 to 1200
• Randomly select a number between 1 and 20
(e.g. 8)
• 1st person selected = the 8th on the list
• 2nd person = 8 + 20 = 28th list e.t.c.

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c. Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling is used when we have subgroups in
our population that are likely to differ substantially in their
responses or behavior (i.e. if the population is heterogeneous).

In stratified random sampling, the population is first divided into

a number of parts or 'strata' according to some characteristic,
chosen to be related to the major variables being studied.

For example, you are interested in visual-spatial reasoning and

previous research suggests that men and women will perform
differently on these types of task
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cont’d…

So, you divide your sample into male and female members and
randomly select the required sample size within each subgroup
(or "stratum")

With this technique, you are guaranteed to have enough of each

subgroup for meaningful analysis.

Often we used simple random sampling to select a sample from

each strata after stratification.

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There are two methods to get the study subject from each subgroup,
proportional allocation or
equal allocation.
We use proportional allocation technique when our subgroups vary dramatically in size
in our population
 Let N be total population and N 1, N2 . . . . Nk be the subtotal population for strata 1, 2, …. K
respectively. Moreover let n be the total sample size and n 1, n2…..nk be th subsample for strata
1, 2…..k respectively in which N = N1 + N2 +….. …+ NK and n = n 1 + n2 +
…………..+ nk
Then the subsample “ni “which will be selected from subgroup Ni can be computed by

n  Ni
ni  where i 1, 2, 3........k
N
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The higher the population in the subgroup, the higher the
sample size will be.

However, equal allocation will be used if the total population

from each subgroup is approximately equal.

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d. Cluster Random Sampling

In this sampling scheme, selection of the required sample is

done on groups of study units (clusters) instead of each study
unit individually.
The sampling unit is a cluster, and the sampling frame is a list
of these clusters.
If the study covers wide geographical area, using the other
methods will be too costly.
The idea is, divided the total population in to different clusters
and then the unit of selection will be cluster.
Therefore, total population in the selected cluster will be taken
as the sample.
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e. Multistage Random Sampling

This is the most complex sampling strategy.

The researcher combines simpler sampling methods to address sampling
needs in the most effective way of possible.
Example 1,
 The administrator might begin with a cluster sample of all schools in the
district.
 Then he might set up a stratified sampling process within clusters.
 Within schools, the administrator could conduct a simple random sample
of classes or grades.
 By combining various methods, researchers achieve a rich variety of
results useful in different contexts.

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Non-Probability Sampling Method
In the presence of constraints to use probability sampling
strategies, the alternative sampling method is non-probability
sampling method.

Non-probability sampling strategies are used when it is

practically impossible to use probability sampling strategies.

Non-probability sampling is sampling procedure which does not

afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in
the population has of being included in the sample.

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 Cont’d...

 Subjective units of population have a zero or unknown

probability of selection before drawing the as sample. Hence
obtained a non-representative samples.
 Sampling error can not be computed
 Survey results cannot be projected to the population

Advantages
 Cheaper and faster than probability
 Reasonably representative if collected in a thorough manner
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a. Judgment Sampling/ Purposive sampling

The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. A

researcher exerts some effort in selecting a sample that
seems to be most appropriate for the study.

This is used primarily when there is a limited number of

people that have expertise in the area being researched

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b. Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling selects a particular group of people but

it does not come close to sampling all of a population.
The sample would generalize only to similar programs in
similar cities.
It looks just like cluster sampling.
The major difference is that the clusters of research
participants are selected by convenience rather than by a
random process.

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Cont’d………..

 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or

accidental or haphazard sampling.

 A type of non probability sampling which involves the sample

being drawn from that part of the population which is close to
hand. That is, readily available and convenient.

 The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make

generalizations about the total population from this sample
because it would not be representative enough.

 This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.

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c. Quota sampling

It is a method that ensures a certain number of sample units

from different categories with specific characteristics are
represented. The investigator interviews as many people in
each category of study unit as he can find until he has filled his
quota.
It is the non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. This
differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled
by random sampling.
The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-
groups, just as in stratified sampling.

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Cont’d

 Then judgment used to select subjects or units from

each segment based on a specified proportion.
 For example, an interviewer may be told to sample
200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and
60.
 It is this second step which makes the technique one
of non-probability sampling.
 In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-
random.

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d. Snowball sampling

It is a special non-probability method used when the

desired sample characteristic is rare.
Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial
subjects to generate additional subjects.
What we need to do in case of snowball sampling is
that first identify someone who meets the criteria and
then let him/her bring the other he/she knew.

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Cont’d

 While this technique can dramatically lower search costs,

it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the
technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will
represent a good cross section from the population.

 Selection of additional respondents is based on

referrals from the initial respondents.
 friends of friends
 Used to sample from low incidence or rare populations.

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Sample Size Determination

Determining the sample size for a study is a crucial component

of study to include sufficient numbers of subjects so that
statistically significant results can be detected.

"How large a sample do I need?“

The answer will depend on the aims, nature and scope of the
study and on the expected result. All of which should be
carefully considered at the planning stage.

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Sample……

o If sample (“n”) is
 Large
 Increase accuracy
 Costy / complex
Take
Optimum
 Small sample
o Decrease accuracy
o Less costy

How ?

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Factors to determine sample size
 Size of population
 Resources – subjects, financial, manpower
 Method of Sampling- random, stratified
 Degree of difference to be detected
 Variability (S.D.) – pilot study, historical
 Degree of Accuracy (or errors)
- Type I error (alpha) p<0.05
- Type II error (beta) less than 0.2 (20%)
- Power of the test : more than 0.8 (80%)
 Statistical Formulae
 Dropout rate

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Cont’d
There are three possible categories of outcome variables.
 The first is where the variable of interest has only two
alternatives response: yes/no, dead/alive, vaccinated/not
vaccinated and so on.
 The second category covers those outcome variable with
multiple, mutually exclusive alternatives responses, such as
marital status, religion, blood group and so on.
 For these two categories of outcome variables, the data are
generally express as percentages or rates.
 So we can use percentage to compute the sample size.

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 The third category covers continuous response variables
such as birth weight, age at first marriage, blood
pressure and cerium uric acid level, for which
numerical measurement are usually made.

 In this case the data are summarize in the form of means

and standard deviations or their derivatives.

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Cont’d
There are several approaches to determining the sample size.

Depending on the type of response variable, whether it is

categorical or continuous, we will have two sets of formulas.

The sample size determination formulas come from the formulas

for the maximum error of the estimates and is derived by solving
for n.

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Sample for Single population mean
 To estimate sample size for single survey using
simple or systematic random sampling, need to
know:
oEstimate of the prevalence of the outcome
o Precision desired
o Design effect
o Size of total population
oLevel of confidence (always use 95%)

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cont’d

This is the condition in which the research question is about

mean.
Standard deviation () of the population: It is rare that a
researcher knows the exact standard deviation of the population.
Typically, the standard deviation of the population is estimated:
 from the results of a previous survey,
 from a pilot study,
 from secondary data,
 from judgment of the researcher.

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Maximum acceptable difference (w): This is the maximum
amount of error that you are willing to accept.
Desired confidence level (Z/2 ) : is your level of certainty that
the sample mean does not differ from the true population mean
by more than the maximum acceptable difference. Commonly
we use a 95% confidence level.
Then the sample size determination formula for single
population mean is defined by:
z22   2
n 
w2
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Sample Size for Single Population Proportion

This is the situation in which the variable of interest is categorical.

Three questions must be answered to determine the sample size for
single population proportion:
Best estimate of population proportion of the variable of interest :
Make your best estimate of what the actual percent of the survey
characteristic is.
The possible source of this proportion are:
 from the results of a previous study,
 item from a pilot study,
 item judgment of the researcher.
 item Simply taking 50%

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Then the formula for the sample size of single population
proportion is defined as:
z22 * p (1  p )
n 2
w

Where α = the level of significance which can be obtained as 1- confidence

level.
P = best estimate of population proportions
z
W=2maximum acceptable difference
the value under standard normal table for the given value of
confidence level

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Incorrect sample size will lead to

 Wrong conclusions
 Poor quality research (Errors)
 Type II error can be minimized by increasing the sample
size

 Waste of resources
 Loss of money
 Ethical problems
 Delay in completion
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