Ecosystem

•Ecolgoy was coined by Earnest Hackel in

1869.
•It is derived from the Greek words Oikos-
home+Logos-study
Definition:
An ecosystem is a self-regulating group of
Biotic communities of species interacting
with one another and with their non-living
environment exchanging energy and
matter
• Ecology also defines as study of
Ecosystems
STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM

Biotic (living) component

And

Abiotic (non-living) component

Biotic Factors
Abiotic Factors
 Biotic Components

The biotic components of an ecosystem can be

classified according to their mode of energy
acquisition

Autotrophs and
Heterotrophs
• Heterotrophs can be :

• consumers

• decomposers
Consumers: Organisms which get their organic food by feeding on other
organisms. They are of the following types:

(i)Herbivores (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers and hence also
known as primary consumers. e.g. rabbit, insect, man etc

(ii)Carnivores (meat eaters): They feed on other consumers. If they feed on

herbivores they are called secondary consumers (e.g. frog) and if they feed on
other carnivores (snake, big fish etc.) they are known as tertiary
carnivores/consumers

(iii)Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals. e.g. humans, rat, fox,
many birds.

(iv)Detritivores (Detritus feeders or Saprotrophs): They feed on the parts of

dead organisms, wastes of living organisms, their cast- offs and partially
decomposed matter e.g. beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms etc.

Decomposers: Derive their nutrition by breaking down the complex organic

molecules to simpler organic compounds and ultimately into inorganic
nutrients. Ex--various bacteria and fungi
 primary consumer secondary consumer

tertiary carnivore/consumer Omnivore

Detritivore Decomposer
 Decomposers
• Decomposers are organisms that degrade or
decompose dead or organic material in simpler
molecules
• Fungi and bacteria are decomposers
 Scavengers
• Scavengers are animals that do not
kill for a meal, but pick on “leftovers”
from other animals
• Hyenas, vultures, crows, racoons,
and some bears are scavengers
 Function of an Ecosystem

Every ecosystem performs in a systematic way under natural conditions

It receivesenergy from the sun and passes it biotic

on through various
components. In fact, all life depends upon this flow of energy
Besides energy, various nutrients and water are also required for life processes
which are exchanged by the biotic components within themselves and with their
abiotic components within or outside the ecosystem

The major functional attributes of an ecosystems are:

(i)Food chain, food webs and trophic structure

(ii)Energy flow
(iii)Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
(iv)Primary and Secondary production
(v) Ecosystem Development and regulation
 FOOD CHAINS
The flow of energy is mediated through a series of feeding relationships in a
definite sequence or pattern which is known as food chain

or

The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain

or

A food chain describes a single pathway that energy and nutrients may follow in
an ecosystem.

All organisms---living or dead are food for some other organism So there is no

waste in the functioning of a natural ecosystem Food chain always start with

producers
 The transfer of energy
from the sun to producer
to primary consumer then
to higher order
consumers can be shown
in a FOOD CHAIN.

14
 Feeding
Relationships
Energy flows
throughan
ecosystem
in one
direction
from
producers
to various
levels of
consumers
 Food
Chain
3rd Order
2nd Order consumer
1st order
Consumer Consumer 4th Order
Consumer

Producer (trapped
sunlight & stored food)
 Food
Web
There are many different food chains in an ecosystem and many of these are
cross-linked to form a food web.

Thus it is a cross-linking network of different food chains in an ecosystem

Ultimately all plants and animals in an ecosystem are part of this complex food
web.
Food
Web

20
 Significance of food chains and food webs

Food chains and food webs play the two most important functions--- energy flow
and nutrient cycling

The food chains maintains and regulates the population size of different animals
and thus maintain the ecological balance

Food chains show a unique property of biological magnification of some chemicals

Biological magnification: Non-biodegradable pesticides are not decomposed by

microorganisms and keep on passing from one trophic level to another with
increasing the concentration at each successive level
 Trophic Levels
– Each step in a food chain or food web is called a trophic level.
– Primary producers always make up the first trophic level.
– Various consumers occupy every other level. Some examples are
shown.

Some examples in food chains

(i) Grass →grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk (Grassland ecosystem)

(ii)Phytoplanktons → zooplanktons → small fish → big fish (Pond

ecosystem)

(ii)Lichens → reindeer → Man (Arctic tundra)

(iii)Grass → Rabbit → Fox

 Trophic Levels

Quaternary Consumers

Tertiary Consumers

Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers

Producers
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Ecological Pyramids
 Ecological Pyramids
What do the three types of ecological pyramids illustrate?

•Pyramids of energy show the relative amount of energy available at

each trophic level.

•A pyramid of biomass illustrates the relative amount of living

organic matter at each trophic level

•A pyramid of numbers shows the relative number of individual

organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem.
Shows the numbers of individual organisms at each trophic
level in an ecosystem
 Pyramid of Numbers

tertiary 5
consumers

secondary 5000
consumers

primary 500,000
consumers

pprrooddu 55,,00000
ucceerrss 0,,000000

• A vast number of producers are required to support even a few top level
consumers.
 Biomass pyramid
The total biomass (dry
matter) at each trophic level in a food
It can also be upright or inverted
chain

tertiary 75 g/m2
consumers

150g/m2
secondary
consumers

primary
consumers 675g/m2

producers 2000g/m2
ENERGY PYRAMID

1J

10 J

100 J

1,000 J

10,000 J
 QUIZ-2.1

• https://forms.gle/
U1XexKmWrbnWqrq88
ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM
NUTRIENT CYCLING
Carbon cycle
 Community Change

Ecological Succession

gradual replacement of one kind of community of

organisms by another over time

Initiated by disturbance
Primary Succession
Secondary succession
Secondary succession is the series of community
changes which take place on a previously colonized,
but disturbed or damaged habitat
 Process of Succession
Nudation: Development of a bare area without any life form due to a disturbance

topographic factor-------landslides/volcanic eruption etc. Climatic factor-- --------drought,

glaciers, frost etc.
biotic factors-------------overgrazing, disease outbreak, agricultural/industrial activities

Invasion: Successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area

By dispersal or migration of seeds, spores etc. by wind, water, insects or birds

Competition and coaction: competition both inter-specific (between different species)

and intra-specific (within the same species), for space, water and nutrition

Influencing each other in a number of ways called as coaction

Reaction: Influence/impact of the growing living organisms by using water and nutrients
on the surrounding causes a change in the environment

Stabilization: Ultimately ends in a more or less stable community called climax that
remains in equilibrium with the environment
 FOREST ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystems having a predominance of trees

Various types based on climatic conditions

•Tropical Rain Forests

•Tropical deciduous forests

•Tropical scrub forests

• Temperate rain forests

•Temperate deciduous forests

•Evergreen coniferous forests (Boreal Forests)

 Tropical Rain
Forests

Nature: Evergreen broadleaf forests near the equator

Factor favour the growth of trees: high temperature, high humidity and high rainfall
Climate: more or less uniform round the year
Richest biodiversity
Different types and layers of plants and animals in the tropical rain forests
The emergent layer: the topmost layer of the tallest broad-leaf evergreen trees
Canopy: top branches of shorter trees form an umbrella like cover
Understory: smaller trees and receive very dim sunlight
The shrub layer: receives even less sunlight
The ground layer commonly known as forest floor receives almost no sunlight and is a
dark layer
•https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=kw6DCp9xvWw
 Tropical deciduous
forests
Found a little away from the equator warm climate round
the year
Rain during monsoon only and dry for large part of the year
shedding its leaves annually
leaves fall during dry season
 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS
Grasslands: Dominated by grass species
Rainfall is average but erratic
Three types of grasslands (based on different climatic regions)

Tropical grasslands

Near the borders of tropical rain forests

High average temperature and low to moderate rainfall
In Africa: typically known as Savannas
Savannas: tall grasses with scattered shrubs and stunted trees
diversity of animals: zebras, giraffes, gazelle, antelopes
fires are quite common in dry season Termite mounds are very common
youtube.com/watch?v=Yy191KVBNP0
 Temperate
grasslands
Usually found on flat, gentle sloped hills winters are very cold
summers are hot and dry
Intense grazing and summer fires do not allow shrubs or trees to grow
In United States and Canada: known as prairies South America: as
Pampas
Africa: as Velds
In central Europe and Asia: known as Steppes

evaporation rate is very high

soils are quite fertile and very often are cleared for agriculture
 Polar grasslands (Arctic
Tundra)
Found in arctic polar region
Severe cold and strong, frigid winds with ice and snow Harsh a climate for
trees to grow
Several small annual plants grow in the summer due to sun-shines almost round the
clock
Animals: arctic wolf, weasel, arctic fox, reindeer etc
 DESERT ECOSYSTEMS
precipitation is less than 25 cm per year evaporation exceeds precipitation
atmosphere is very dry
plants are drought resistant species diversity is very little
1/3rd of the world’s land area is under deserts
three major types, based on climatic conditions

Tropical deserts: Sahara and Namib in Africa, Thar desert, Rajasthan, India Wind
blown sand dunes are very common

Temperate deserts: Mojave in Southern California

Cold deserts: Gobi desert in China

cold winters and warm summers

Many plants in desert have a waxy, thick cuticle over the leaf to reduce loss of
water through transpiration

Desert animals (like insects and reptiles) have thick outer coverings to minimize
loss of water
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Uw_RLVv1Bt4
 AQUATIC
ECOSYSTEMS
deals with water bodies
Water could be freshwater or marine

Freshwater ecosystem: Standing type (lentic)-----ponds and lakes

Free-flowing type (lotic)----- like rivers

Pond ecosystem: A small freshwater ecosystem with stagnant water seasonal in

nature
shallow water bodies
contains varieties of algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes and birds exposed to
anthropogenic stress: washing, bathing, swimming,
cattle bathing etc.
Lake ecosystem: A big freshwater body with standing water
Have diff zones based on the depth
Littoral zone: the shallow water zone
Limnetic zone: effective penetration of solar light
takes place
profundal zone : deep bottom where light penetration is
negligible
Types of Lakes:

Oligotrophic lakes: have low nutrients

Eutrophic lakes: overnourished by nutrients (N & P) and covered with algal

blooms

Dystrophic lakes: have low pH, high humic acid and brown waters

Endemic lakes: very ancient, deep and have endemic fauna

Desert salt lakes: In arid regions having high salt content due to high evaporation

Volcanic lakes: get water from magma after volcanic eruptions

Artificial lakes or impoundments: made due to construction of dams

 Streams: Freshwater ecosystems with running
water
River Ecosystem: large streams with downward flow from mountain highlands, flowing

through the plains and finally fall into the sea

mountain highland: cold and clear waters with high DO

second phase: gentle slopes where the waters are warmer

third phase: very rich in biotic diversity (silt rich in nutrients get deposited in the plains

and in the delta before reaching the ocean)

 Oceans

Very big reservoirs of water major sinks of carbon dioxide

regulates the earth’s climate by regulating many biogeochemical cycles
have two major life zones:
Coastal zone: relatively warm, nutrient rich shallow water and high primary Productivity
zone
Open sea: deeper part of the ocean, far away from the coast vertically
divided into three regions
Euphotic zone : get plenty of light and thus high photosynthetic activity
Bathyal zone: get dim light and usually geologically active
Abyssal zone: dark zone (2000 to 5000 metres deep), no primary source of energy It is
the world’s largest ecological unit which is an incomplete ecosystem
 Estuary

Found at the mouth of a river where fresh water and salty seawater meet

Constant mixing of water stirs up the silt that makes the nutrients available for the

primary producers

Organisms present in estuaries show a wide range of tolerance to temperature and

salinity due to variations in the stream flow and tidal currents

Such organisms are known as eurythermal and euryhaline

Have rich biodiversity and many of the species are endemic

many migratory species of fishes like eels and salmons in which half of the life is

spent in fresh water and half in salty water

Highly productive ecosystems

 Estuary

Found at the mouth of a river where fresh water and salty seawater meet

Constant mixing of water stirs up the silt that makes the nutrients available for the

primary producers

Organisms present in estuaries show a wide range of tolerance to temperature and

salinity due to variations in the stream flow and tidal currents

Such organisms are known as eurythermal and euryhaline

Have rich biodiversity and many of the species are endemic

many migratory species of fishes like eels and salmons in which half of the life is

spent in fresh water and half in salty water

Highly productive ecosystems

Biodiversity
and its
Conservation
 This module will enable

you to understand:
• Concept of biodiversity and its levels

• Benefits of biodiversity

• Causes of biodiversity loss

• Approaches to conservation
 Evaluation of man

• https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=2W5hOJaFjxU
 Biodiversity
What does “Bio”
mean?
Bio =
What does “Diversity” mean?
Diversity = Variety
Biodiversity: The variety and variability of life on
Earth

The tremendous variety of life on Earth is made

possible by complex interactions among all

living things including micro-organisms

Levels of Biodiversity
Genetic Diversity
Species Diversity
Ecosystem Diversity
Genetic Diversity
 Species Diversity
Variability within a species/between diff species of a
community
Species richness & its abundance
Ecosystem Diversity
 Value of
Biodiversity
Consumptive use value

Productive use value

Social value

Ethical value

Aesthetic value

Option values

Ecosystem service value

 Consumptive use value
Direct Use Value: Goods

• Food
• Building Materials
• Fuel
• Paper Products
• Fiber (clothing,
textiles)
• Industrial products
(waxes, rubber, oils)
• Medicine

Source: © AMNH-CBC
 Productive use value

Commercially usable values:Product is marketed and sold

Tusk of elephant, musk of musk deer, silk from silk-worm,wool

from sheep, fur of many animals,

Originating plant or animal Product/End use

Cork oak (Quercus suber) Cork
PARē RUB BER TREE (HEVEA Rubber
BRASILIENSIS)
Lac ins ect (Laccifer spp.) shellac
CARN AUBA PALM (COPERNICIA CERIFERA CAR NAUBA WAX
)
Wax plant (Euphorbia antisyphilitica) candelilla wax
Jojoba plant (Simmondsia chinensis) jojoba oil
Cochineal insect (Dactylopius CAR MINE DYE *
 Social values

Values associated with the social life, customs, religion

and psycho-spiritual aspects of the people

Plants: Tulsi (holy basil), Peepal, Mango,

Lotus, Bael etc, leaves/fruits/flowers/plant
itself used for worship

Animals: Cow,snake, bull, owl etc in psycho-spiritual arena

of us
 Biodiversity at global, national and local
level
Only after the “Earth Summit” (1992) there was growing need to know and
scientifically name a large number of species which are still unknown on this
earth.

Roughly 1.5 million species are known till date which is perhaps 15% or may be
just 2% of the actual number

The tropical rainforests are inhabited by millions of species of plants, birds,

amphibians, insects as well as mammals

They are the earth's largest storehouse of biodiversity

About 50 to 80% of global biodiversity lies in tropical rainforests

More than one-fourth of the world's prescription drugs are extracted from plants
growing in tropical forests

Out of the 3000 plants identified by National Cancer Research Institute as sources
of cancer fighting chemicals, 70% come from tropical rain forests

There is an estimated 1,25,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests

The Silent Valley in Kerala is the only place in India where tropical rain forests
occur
 BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AT NATIONAL LEVEL
(Indian Biodiversity)

India has a rich biological diversity of flora and fauna

Overall six percent of the global species are found in India

Estimated that India ranks :

6th among the centres of diversity and origin of agricultural crops

10th among the plant rich countries of the world and

11th in terms of number of endemic species of higher vertebrates

Total number of living species identified in our country is
1, 50,000

Out of 25 biodiversity hot-spots in the world,

India possesses two:
one in the north-east region and one in the western ghats

Indian is also one of the 12 mega-biodiversity countries in

the world

Biodiversity Profile of India

ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/indiabio.html
Endemism: Species restricted only to a particular
area are known as endemic
18% of the Indian plants are endemic to the country and
found nowherelse in the world

About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are

endemic to India

Western ghats are the site of maximum endemism

 HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
 Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high
species

endemism are termed as hot spots of biodiversity

 There are 25 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global

level

 Two are present in India----the Eastern Himalayas and Western

Ghats

 These hot spots covering less than 2% of the world’s land area are

found to have about 50% of the terrestrial biodiversity

According to Myers et al. (2000), an area is called as a hotspot when it contains at
least 0.5% of the plant species as endemic

Nearly 40% of terrestrial plants and 25% of vertebrates are endemic to these
hotspots

Highest in tropical rain forest (evergreen broad leaf forest found near equator)

2nd highest in Mediterranean (western Amazon, Madagascar, North & East Borneo,
North-Eastern Australia, West Africa etc)

More than 1 billion people (1/6 of world population) who are desperately very poor
live in these areas
Eastern Himalayas: They display an ultra-varied topography that fosters species
diversity and endemism

Numerous deep and semi-isolated valleys in Sikkim which are extremely rich in
endemic plant species.

7298 Km2 of Sikkim--- about 4250 plant species are found of which 60% are
endemic.

The forest cover of Eastern Himalayas has dwindled to about 1/3rd of its original
cover. Certain species like Sapria himalayana, a parasitic angiosperm was sighted
only twice in this region in the last 70 years

Out of the world’s recorded flora, 30% are endemic to India, of which 35,000 are in
the Himalayas
Western Ghats: It extends along a 17,000 Km2 strip of forests in Maharashtra,

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala

Has 40% of the total endemic plant species

62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats

The major centers of diversity are Agastyamalai Hills and Silent Valley

Reported that only 6.8% of the original forests are existing today while the rest

has been deforested or degraded

 THREATS

TO

BIODIVERSITY
 THREATS

1. LOSS OF HABITAT

2. POACHING

3. MAN-WILDLIFE CINFLICT
 LOSS OF HABITAT
• Destruction and loss of natural the
single
habitat-- largest cause of biodiversity loss

• Natural forests and grasslands were the natural homes

of thousands of species which perished due to loss of
their natural habitat

• Billions of hectares of forests and grasslands have been

cleared to convert into agriculture lands, pastures,
settlement areas or development projects
Sometimes the loss of habitat occurs in instalments -- habitat
fragmentation-- The separation of an ecosystem into small pieces
of land is called

The smaller the parcel of land, the fewer species it can support

•If a habitat is destroyed or disrupted, the native species might

have to relocate or they will die
•Destruction of habitat - such as the
clearing of tropical
rainforests, has a direct impact on global biodiversity
•Disruption of habitat - the declining population of one species can
affect an entire ecosystem
There has been a rapid disappearance of tropical forests in our

country also, at a rate of about 0.6% per year

With the current rate of loss of forest habitat, it is estimated that

20-25% of the global flora would be lost within a few years

Marine biodiversity is also under serious threat due to large scale

destruction due to human intervention

 POACHING
by killing
Poaching----Illegal prohibited
tra de of

wildlife products

endangered animals
Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered species,

smuggling of wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live specimens

and herbal products worth millions of dollars per year continues

The developing nations in Asia, Latin America and Africa are the richest

source of biodiversity and have enormous wealth of wildlife

The rich countries in Europe and North America and some
affluent countries in Asia like Japan, Taiwan and Hong
Kong are the major importers of the wild life products or
wild life itself.

The cost of elephant tusks can go upto $ 100 per kg The

leopard fur coat is sold at $ 100,000 in Japan

Bird catchers can fetch upto $ 10,000– for rare hyacinth

macaw, a beautiful coloured bird, from Brazil
 MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were killed in the last 5 years by
elephants. In retaliation the villagers killed 98 elephants and badly injured
30 elephants.

Several instances of killing of elephants in the border regions of Kote-

Chamarajanagar belt in Mysore have been reported
Cause: massive damage done by the elephants to the farmer’s cotton and
sugarcane crops
Villagers electrocute the elephants and sometimes hide explosives in the
sugarcane fields, which explode as the elephants intrude into their fields

14 persons were killed by leopards---Sanjay

Gandhi National Park, Mumbai and created a panic among the local
 Causes of Man-animal conflicts

Dwindling habitats of tigers, elephants, rhinos and bears due to shrinking

forest cover compels them to move outside the forest and attack the field

or sometimes even humans

Earlier there used to be wild-life corridors through which the wild animals

used to migrate seasonally in groups to other areas.

Due to development of human settlements in these corridors, the path of

wildlife has been disrupted and the animals attack the settlements
 Extinct: when a species is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch e.g.

Dodo, passenger pigeon

Endangered: when the number of a species has been reduced to a critical level

or whose habitats have been drastically reduced and if not protected and

conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction

Vulnerable: When the population of a species is facing continuous decline due

to overexploitation or habitat destruction. Such a species is still abundant, but

under a serious threat may go to endangered category if causal factors remains

unchecked

Rare: Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at present, but are at a risk

are categorized as rare species

 Extinct

Passenger pigeon Dodo

 Endangered

Spotted owl Tortois The Great Indian

e Bustard
Black rhinoceros Dugong Red panda

Green sea turtle Tiger Snow leopard

Why biodiversity is decreasing?https://www.you
tube.com/watch?v=1cvMX82iwRM

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

A number of measures are plants and wildlife

being taken world wide to conserve biodiversity --

 Two approaches of biodiversity conservation

In situ(within habitat):

Conservation of species in their natural habitat

E.g. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve Forests

Ex situ(outside habitats):

Conserving species in isolation of their natural habitat

E.g. gene banks, seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens, culture

collections
In Situ Conservation
In our country

Major Biosphere reserves-7

National Parks-80

Wild-life sanctuaries-420 Botanical

gardens-120

Total area: 4% of the geographic

area

The Biosphere
Reserves: conserve some representative
ecosystems as a whole
 National Park
An area for the of wildlife along with
dedicated conservation its
environment

Also meant for enjoyment through tourism but without impairing the
environment

Activities like--grazing of domestic animals, all private rights and forestry

activities are prohibited within a National Park

Each National Park aims at conservation of some

particular species of wildlife along with others.
 Some important National parks in India
Name of National Park State Important Wildlife

Kaziranga Assam One horned Rhino

Gir National Park Gujarat Indian Lion

Dachigam J&K Hangul

Bandipur Karnataka Elephant

Periyar Kerala Elephant, Tiger

Kanha M.P. Tiger

Corbett U.P. Tiger

Dudwa U.P. Tiger

Ranthambore Rajasthan Tiger

Sariska Rajasthan Tiger

 Ex situ Conservation
Outside its natural habitat by controlled situation

Mainly done for conservation of crop varieties, the wild relatives of

crops and
all the local varieties

Main objective: conserving the total genetic variability of the crop species for
future crop improvement or afforestation programmes

There is expertise to multiply the species under artificially managed conditions

Breeding programs for rare plants and animals (however more expensive than
managing a Protected Area)
 Seed bank

• https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=J-gbMuUD9AQ