Geology of Ethiopia

• Course title: Geology and

Geologic Resources of
Ethiopia (Geology of Ethiopia)
• Staff responsible: zelealem
Haftu
• Course code: Geol 502; Credit
hours: 3; Class Year:IV;
Semester:II; Academic Year:
2005EC/2013
• Course category: Core course
• Pre-requisite(s): Geol 304
(Sedimentary Petrology), Geol
407 (Igneous Petrology) and
Geol 408 (Metamorphic
Petrology)
Course aim:
• The objective of the course is to give students:
– about different geological formations and associated structures
and resources of the country.
– about proper exploration, exploitation and utilization of the
mineral oil, natural gas and water resources of Ethiopia require
the knowledge of the geological set up of the country
Learning Out comes
• At the end of the course students will:
– know the Ethiopian geology and rocks in general stratigraphic
order and distribution of Ethiopian rocks coverage and their
associations
– know the general structures and economic importance of
Ethiopian rocks in terms of minerals, water, natural gas and oil
occurrences and environmental importance
– understand the geological evolution of East Africa and the
 Course outline
Chapter One: African Geology
1.1. Geologic time scale
1.2. Major geologic and biogenic events
1.3. African cratonic nuclei and Archean rocks
1.4. Archean & Proterozoic geology
Chapter Two: Precambrian geology of Ethiopia
2.1. Stratigraphy
2.2. Intrusive rocks
2.3. Geodynamic evolution
2.4. The Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia within the framework of
EAO
Chapter Three: Paleozoic-Cenozoic Sedimentary Basins and rock
Sequences of Ethiopia
3.1. Sedimentary basins of Ethiopia
3.2. Sedimentary Succession of Ethiopia
3.3. Paleozoic Sedimentary rocks of Ethiopia
Chapter Four: Tertiary-Quaternary Volcanic rock succession and related
structures of Ethiopia
4.1. Rift Formation and Propagation
4.2. Variation of Tertiary-Quaternary volcanic rocks
4.3. Stratigraphy of Tertiary-Quaternary volcanic rocks
Chapter Five: History of Exploration for Earth Resources of Ethiopia
5.1. Mineral and petroleum exploration history
5.2. Challenges and problems of exploration companies (Foreign)
5.3. Mining and mineral industry in Ethiopia
5.4. Sedimentary rocks and associated natural resources
5.5. Coal and oil shale occurrences in the Cretaceous and Tertiary
sediments
Chapter Six: Groundwater Potential of Ethiopia
6.1. Basis of different aquifers (Hydrogeological) units and groups of
rocks
6.2. General ground flow conditions
6.3. Recharge distribution and rates
 Chapter One: African Geology
• Geologic time scale
• Major geologic and biogenic events
• African cratonic nuclei and Archean rocks
• Archean & Proterozoic geology

5
 Geologic Time
• Time is an important component of geology; this
separates geology from most other sciences
• Man’s most ancient history extends back just
thousands of years in time; events in geologic time
have occurred over millions or even billions of
years!
• There are two methods of geologic dating: relative
and absolute
– Relative dating involves sequencing of geologic events
– Absolute dating provides specific dates for rock units
or geologic events
6
 Geologic time scale
• is a graphical representation of the history of the Earth,
divided into units related to geologic events as evidenced
by the fossil record
• It was first developed as a relative time scale that was
pieced together by numerous researchers at widespread
localities over a long period of time, using the techniques
of relative dating
• The development of absolute dating allowed the relative
time scale to be tied to absolute dates, based upon dates
from thousands of rock exposures, which provided
today’s Geologic Time Scale

7
relative dating

8
• Standard geologic time scale
– Subdivides geologic time based on fossil
assemblages
– Divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs
• Precambrian - vast amount of time prior to the
Paleozoic era; few fossils preserved prior to mass
extinction
• Phanerozoic - small amount of time and includes
• A) Paleozoic era - “old life”
– appearance of complex life; many fossils.
Precambrian fossils didn’t preserve due to lack of
shells. 9
• B) Mesozoic era - "middle life"
– Dinosaurs abundant on land
– Period ended by mass extinction due to possible
meteorite and/or volcanic eruptions
• C) Cenozoic era - "new life"
– Mammals and birds abundant
– We are currently in the Recent (Holocene) Epoch
of the Quaternary Period of the Cenozoic Era
– Most recent ice ages occurred during the
Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period

10
 Geologic Time Scale

 You know that the Earth is about 4.6 billion years old. The
Precambrian Eon (Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic) represent
88% of its geological time and hence most of Earth's history is
represented by Precambrian eon.
 Geologic time and major events
• Age of Man, Cenozoic-Quaternary 20,000 -
1,000,000 Our era
• Age of Mammals, Cenozoic-Tertiary. Layers forming
valley floors 1 - 63 million Grass, large mammals
• Age of Reptiles, Mesozoic, Cretaceous, Jurassic,
Layers of upper valley slopes 63 - 180 million first
birds, peak & extinction of dinosaurs Rockies formed
• Age of Amphibians, Paleozoic--Carboniferous.
Layers in upper valley 230 - 345 million Sharks, first
reptiles, many insects, amphibians, forests of coal-
forming plants. Appalachians formed
• Age of Fishes, Paleo-Devonian. Layers near peaks 345
- 405 million first amphibians, many corals, early
forests spread
• Age of sea invertebrates, Paleo-Cambrian, Ordovician,
Silurian; Layers surface only near top of peaks 405 -
500 million Trilobites, invertebrate sea life, spread of
molluscs, vertebrate fish, first amphibians, air breathers,
first land plants
• Age of first life, Pre-Cambrian. Algae create oxygen
atmosphere. Peak and root of Medicine Mountain 600
million - 3 billion first life, algae, multicelled
organisms; for hundreds of millions of years, periods of
sediment deposit, followed by volcanic and layer-
Geologic time scale and some major
geologic and biogenic events
 The differences b/n Archean & Proterozoic
1. Ultramafic & Komatiite volcanics are
uncommon in Proterozoic greenstone belts,
2. Chert and iron formations are less abundant in
Proterozoic belts.
3. Greywacke is more common in Proterozoic
4. K-rich felsic volcanics & pyroclsatics are
abundant in Proterozoic belts

The early Proterozoic Terrain is subdivided depending on

lithologic assemblages & tectonic significance:
1. Greenstone belts (30% Volcanic component and
Metamorphic grade is low greenschist to amphibolites);
2. Clastic sedimentary rocks (quartizite, sandstone,
red bed chert & BIF);
3. Intrusive rocks (great dyke of Zimbabowe, Widgie-Moolta
dyke suite W. Australia, Layered startiform igneous complexes)
The Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia in the contest of EAO

African cratonic nuclei and Archean rocks

1.1 Cratons, Shields and
Mobile Belts in Africa
 The African continent is
formed from a number of
Archaean cratonic nuclei that
are sutured (welded
together) along Proterozoic
mobile belts (Fig., See also
tectonic map of Africa).
 Cratons and mobile belts of Africa
 In Africa there are four major cratonic
masses.
These are (Fig. 1):
• West African craton,
• Saharan Craton/Nile Craton
• Congo craton and
• Kalahari craton
• Along the margins of these cratons
they occur relatively elongated,
narrow, sometimes curve-linear
mobile belts which carry a record of
poly-phase of deformation or varied
size (length and width) shield.
Examples of Mobile belts in Africa
include:
• Hoggar Belt, west African orogen,
• Damara-Katanga, west Congo orogen,
• Mozambique belt.
Example of Shield in Africa include
The Arabian Nubian Shield
 1.2. Definitions of terms
A) What is Craton?
 Is part of Earth’s crust that has attained stability long in
geologic history and has never been subjected to deformation
or metamorphic mobility for a prolonged period. Most
cratonic masses are Archaean in age.
B) What is Shield?
 Is a cratonized mobile belt that has undergone prolonged
deformational and metamorphic cycles in the Proterozoic.
(e.g., The Arabian Nubian Shield in the NE Africa)
C) What is Mobile belt/s?
 Mobile belts are zones with history of reactivated tectonism
and metamorphism. They include:
– newly developed supracrustal material and
– tectonic inclusions of Archaean cratonic masses and
– commonly occur along the margins of ridged cratonic masses.
Orogenic belts in Eastern Africa
 The most important
orogenic belts,
relevant to the geology
of Ethiopia, are
1. the Mozambique
Orogenic belt (MB) and
2. the Arabian Nubian
shield (ANS).
 1. The Mozambique Orogenic Belt (MB)
 The MB was first defined by Holmes
(1951) as:
– a N-S trending mobile belt
situated east of the cratonic mass
(Tanzanian and Congo) that
extends from Mozambique in the
south to southern Ethiopia and
Uganda in the north (See Fig.).
 It comprises:
– poly-deformed and
metamorphosed migmatitic para
and ortho gneisses, schists with
folded marbles and quartzite.
– It also includes some lenses of
granulite facies rocks which were
considered to be part of Archaean
craton reworked during Meso-
Proterozoic Mozambique orogeny.
 2. The Arabian Nubian Shield (ANS)
 Is a distinct “Pan-African” tectono-
metamorphic entity in north-east Africa
and Arabia.
 Exposed East of the Nile/East Sahara
Craton in the west and Phanerozoic
cover in the east,
 It extends N-S from Arabian Peninsula in
the north through Egypt and the Sudan
to Ethiopia in the south (see Fig.).
 It comprises:
– predominantly low-grade, sub-
water, locally aerial volcanic and
volcanoclastic metasedimentary
rocks.
– Intrusions of gabbroic to granitic
masses of variable emplacement
age.
– Numerous, narrow belts of mafic
and ultramafic rocks of ophiolitic
character form part of the shield.
 Ophiolites are tectonically emplaced
succession of mafic and ultramafic
rocks that are considered to
represent fragments of oceanic or
back arc basin crust (Coleman,
1977).

 An ideal ophiolite includes the

following bottom to top succession:
1. Ultramafic tectonite
2. Layered cumulate gabbros

3. Isotropic (non layered gabbros,

diorites and plagiogranites)

4. Sheeted dykes

5. Pillowed basalt Top

 These are capped by abyssal or
pelagic sediments (deep see
sediments)
Definition of terms related to the Orogenic belts in Eastern Africa
a) The Pan-African
 Pan-African is a tectono-thermal episode in the context of the geology of Africa
(650-500 Million years ago).
 The term was first coined by Kennedy (1964) to characterize tectonic-thermal
event that affected much of Africa (cratonic masses and mobile belts, during
the late Precambrian to Early Paleozoic (500 Ma)
b) Gondwanaland
 Is a super continent that is formed from the fragmentation of earlier super
continent (Rodina) at around 900 Ma and final amalgamation by collision of the
fragments during 750-500 MA.
 The eastern part of Gondwanaland includes part of Far-east, eastern Europe,
eastern part of east Africa, while the western part of Gondwanaland includes
much of Africa, southern America and central Europe (see fig).
 The present day configuration is the result of Gondwanaland drifting that
started during the Late Paleozoic.
GodwanaLand
Chapter Two: Precambrian geology of Ethiopia

2.1. Stratigraphy
2.2. Intrusive rocks
2.3. Geodynamic evolution
2.4. The Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia within
the framework of EAO

26
 2. Survey of the stratigraphy of Ethiopia

2.1. Stratigraphy of The Precambrian

geology of Ethiopia
 Metamorphic terrain of Ethiopia
includes
• Stratified metamorphic
rocks
• Intrusive rocks
 Stratified metamorphic rocks are
exposed in
• southern
• northern
• western and
• eastern parts of the country
• where the Phanerozoic/younger
rocks are either eroded or not
deposited. (See map)
 Stratigraphy of Meta…
• In southern Ethiopia
– Mostly high and low grade rocks
– The High Grade rocks are Known to
us Yabello Gneiss, Burji gneiss,
Konso group and Wadera Group
and comprise Medium to High
Grade Ortho and Para Gneisses,
some migmatites; intensely folded
and shortened
– the low Grade rocks, on the other
hand are known to as Adola Group
which includes: low grade
metavolcanics and metasediments
together with belts of mafic and
Unltramafic rocks.
• In Western Ethiopia
– High and low grade rocks which
encompass
– Gneisses and schists and
migmatites of Baro Group and low
grade rocks of Birbir Group
(metasediments, metavolcanics and
belts of mafic and ultramafic rocks)
 Meta.. Stra.. Cont’
In Northern Ethiopia
– Mainly low grade rocks which
Include
• Tsalite Metavolvanics,
• Tambian Metasediments,
• Shiraro metasediments,
• Didikama Formation and
• Mathos Metasediments
all of which are low to very low grade
rocks and simply deformed
• North western Ethiopia around
humera:
– undifferentiated High Grade rocks
• In Eastern Ethiopia
– High and low grade rocks
 Stratigraphy cont’
These high grade and low grade rocks were grossly
grouped into three complexes:
• The upper complex (Low grade metavolcanics and
metasediments with associated mafic and ultramafic
rocks)
• The Middle Complex (only in Southern Ethiopia, the
Wadera Group, Metasediments) and
• The Lower complex (High grade ortho and para
gneisses, migmatites and inclusion of Granulite facies
rocks)
• Grossly=generally
 Stratigraphy cont’
This classification is based on:

1. Structural complexity (decrease in structural complexities from Lower

to upper complex);

2. Metamorphic grade (decrease in grade of metamorphism from Lower

to Upper complex);

3. Similarities to the geology of neighbouring countries (Mozambique Belt

rocks of Kenya and Tanzania in the south, and Arabian Nubian Shield
rocks in the north); and

4. Unreliable isotopic age dating (Sr-Rb, K-Ar methods (which are

mobile/unstable in different P-T metamorphic conditions)
 Stratigraphy cont’
• It was generally considered that the high-grade rocks are part of
Archaean cratonic mass and basement to the low-grade rocks.
• The Lower Complex rocks with high metamorphic grade
including granulite facies were correlated to rocks of
Mozambique Organic Belt.

• The upper complex/ low-grade rocks were thought to have

deposited in an intra-continental basin unconformable over the
high grade rocks.
• These rocks were correlated to Arabian Nubian Shield which
exhibited/showed similar rock assemblages and metamorphic
grade

• Based on the metamorphic grade and distribution of the low-

grade rocks in the country, it was also concluded that the
metamorphic rocks in Ethiopia, especially the Upper Complex
rocks are becoming younger as one goes from south to north.
 2.1.2. Intrusive igneous rocks in the Precambrian Geology of
Ethiopia
A) Classification:
Intrusive rocks in Ethiopian Precambrian are not considered as part of
stratified sequence. They are generally classified on the bases of:
• Their Composition and
• Timing of Intrusion with respect to tectonic activity
A1. Comositional classification:
• Gabbros (most mafic),
• Diorite,
• Granodiorite,
• Tonalite and
• Granite (Most Felsic/differntiated)
A2 Structural Classification:
• Pre-tectonic,
• Syn-tectonic and
• Post-tectonic with respect to major tectonic activities
 Further classifications were also made possible on the basis of
geochemistry
Alkaline, transitional, Calc-alkaline, thoillitic
 2.1.3. Geodynamic evolution of the Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia
How did the geology of Ethiopia Evoloved?
 There were two approaches to explain Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia
These are:
1. The Geosynclinal Approach
2. Plate tectonic approach

1. Geosynclinal approach (“traditionally in use”)

• Traditionally it is assumed that the stratigraphical units were
developed in a serious of subsidence (perhaps related to lithosphric
extension and basin formation in the Precursor, (Archaean basement
platform).
• extrusion of volcanic rocks (along the extensional faults) in a subsiding
basin followed by
• burial of the sequence by sedimentary deposition
• metamorphosed as a result of pressure and temperature gradient at
depth.
(The higher the depth, the higher the grade of metamorphism).
• partial melting producing migmatites, and granitic melts
 Geodynamic evolution Cont’

• Intrusion of granitic melts into the sequence as a result of density

contrast.
• It was also assumed/inferred that Each Complex) is separated from
the other by unconformity which marks phase of uplift and erosion.
• This approach is typical of Geosynclinal theory.
• It sees the Precambrian basement of Ethiopia in an upward
younging, “layer-cake” geometry. Still today, many geoscientists use
this traditional approach

2. The Plate-Tectonic Approach

• Late 1970’s the plate tectonic theories and concepts were applied to
explain the driving mechanisms of major mountain building (organic)
belts of the world.
• This was also applied to explain the geodynamic evolution of the
Arabian Nubian Shield and the Mozambique orogenic belt.
 Development of the Plate tectonic Concept in the Arabian Nubian Shield

 The recognition of the following lithological association and

geochmeical signitures in the ANS: i.e.,
– linear belts of ophiolites (mafic and ultramafic rocks) with pillowed
metabasalts
– having geochemical characteristics similar to modern back-arc basin (BAB)
basalt (enriched Large Ion Lithophil elements/LILE (Sr, Rb, Br, K, Th, U)
– with typical Mid Oceanic Ridge Basalt (MORB) high field strength
elements (Ti, Zr, Y, Cr) concentration.
– Calc-alkaline geochemical characteristics (enriched SILE and depleted
HFSE) of the metavolcanics and
 Plate tectonic concept..
 Clac-alkaline geochemical characteristics of the associated plutonic
rocks in the Arabian Nubian Shield compared well with lithological
association and geochemical characteristics of rocks developed in
modern subduction related, destructive plate margin
(e.g. intra-oceanic island arcs in the SW pacific and the western margin of
northern America).
 This led researchers in the NE Africa and Arabia to interpret that the
crust of ANS is developed by plate tectonic processes similar to those
operating in the Phanerozoic destructive plate margins.
 Plate tectonic process in ANS cont..

The processes involved

• ocean floor spreading,
• intra-oceanic island arc and
back arc basin developments,
• closure of the basins, and
• lateral crustal accretion.
• ophiolites were abducted
during the closure and mark
suture zones between arc-
arc, arc-back arc basin or arc-
continental collision zones.
 Plate tectonic process in ANS cont..

• In much of Arabia and most parts of the shield, four stage of

episodic continuum of magmatism and arc development were
recoded (Gass, 1981) within the time span ranging from ?
1200 to 500 Ma.
• These stages of developments were collectively termed the
Pan-African Orogeny; expanding the original definition Pan-
African age limit of Kennedy (1964) from 500+/- 100 to 900
+/- 100.
• The four stages of crustal development (according to Gass,
1981) in the Arabain Nubian Shield are (see Fig 4):
 Geodynamic Evolution, Plate tectonic concept

• The lower Pan African (?

1200 Ma to 1000 Ma)
• The Middle Pan-African
( 1000 Ma- 600 Ma)
• The Upper Pan-African
(600-500 Ma) and
• The Post Pan-African (Post
500 Ma)
 Geodynamic evolution, Plate tectonic, ANS

These stages are distinctly separated by

• Major break in structure,
• Volcanic geochemistry and metamorphic grade.
 The volcanic rocks and associated intrusives have evolved from low- K
basalts and basaltic andesites together with more mafic intrusives in
the Lower Pan-African through calc-alkaline andesites and subordinate
decites and rhyolites together with intermediate plutonic rocks in the
Middle Pan African to more evolved, felsic volcanics rocks together
with felsic intrusive rocks during the Upper and Post Pan-African times.
 Geodynamic evolution, ANS Cont..

 The inferred tectonic

settings for the rock
associations corresponding
to the stages were;
• development or formation
of numerous intra-oceaianic
island arcs,
• lateral accretion of arcs to
form a cratonized ANS at
later stages
 Geodynamic Evolution of ANS cont..
• In other words, the evolution
started from the formation of
numerous immature intra-oceanic
island arc at (Lower pan-African)
through
• Mature Intra-oceanic island Arcs
(which attained micro-continental
sizes) in (Middle Pan-African) to
• volcanic arc developed in the
continental margin similar to the
Andean type in (Upper Pan African)
 Geodynamic evolution, ANS cont..

• In the Nubian side of the Arabian Nubian shield, similar

ophiolite belts were recognized in the far south as in southern
Ethiopia
• This together with similarities in volcanic rocks geochemistry
in the Nubian side of the shield encouraged researchers to
accept similar model envisaged for the Arabian side
• Although the lower age limit is not well constrained (e.g.
1200, Gass, 1981), reliable age dating methods revealed that
crustal growth in the Arabian Nubian shield is bracketed
between 900-500 Ma. (Stern, 1994)
 Development of plate tectonic Concept in the Mozambique
Orogenic Belt
• Although low-grade volcanosedimnentray rocks similar to those
described form the ANS are absent in the Mozambique orogenic belt;
• Traces of mafic -ultramafic rocks are described from the northern parts
of the MB (e.g., in Kenya and Tanzania),

• Structural studies in the belt shows that it is dominated by thrust

tectonics which stacked masses of crustal material implicating
horizontal compressional regime;

• Intrusive rocks in the belt show partly calc-alkaline geochemical

signature and partly collision related setting,

• Metamorphic pattern in the belt resembles root zone of Phanerozoic

continent-continent collisional zone

• Reliable age dating methods (U-Pb isotopic dating from zircon)

showed that granulite facies metamorphism occurred late in orogenic
history (between 750-500 Ma).
 Plate tectonic concept in MB cont..
 This falls within the age range of the evolution of ANS in contrary to the previous
thoughts that relate the granulite facies metamorphism to Archaean cratonic mass in
Africa.
 These and other evidence suggested that the MB rocks are developed in a continent-
continent collisional setting similar to the Himalayan mountain chain
 Resulted due to the collision between Indian and Asian during the Cenozoic.

 This implies that the high grade rocks of MB are the result of continent - continent
collision between the Congo/Tanzanian Craton in the west and Asiatic craton in the
east
 These cratons correspond to East and west Gondwanaland (Fig. 5). During the
continent-continent collision, extensive shortening produced crustal stacking by thrust
faulting.
 This stacking in tern produced high grade, granulite facies metamorphism at the root
zone of the orgeney.
 The Kinship/relationships between MB and ANS

 The two orogenic belts in eastern

Africa have much in common than
differences.
 Differences:
 The grade of metamorphism (high in
MB and Low in ANS) and
paucity/limitation of ophiolitic mass
in the MB,
 Similarities include:
 Structural continuity (N-S structural
Grain)
 Geographic position in eastern Africa
 Contemporaneous development in
the bracket of Pan-African age (900-
500 Ma)
 Rock geochemistry typical of
destructive plate margin
 Kinship between MB and ANS

 These and other similarities in the belts necessitated the

finding of true kinship between the two important orogenic
belts in eastern Africa.
 Considering the above ( Berhe,1990) termed the two as MB
and ANS in Eastern Africa,
 Stern (1994) coined the term East African Orogen (EAO) to
combine the two belts which produced the present structural,
stratigraphic and metamorphic configuration of the
Precambrian of Eastern Africa.
 Kinship between MB and ANS cont..
 Sedimentological
 volcanic rock geochemical data together with
 the presence of fragments of oceanic crust in EAO
suggested that evolution of the orogen began
1. rifting of a supper continent called Rodina (900-850 Ma)
 The rifting and sea floor spreading led to
– the formation of Mozambique Ocean (Fig. 6a)
2 Closure of the Mozambique Ocean under oblique NW-SE
converging continental masses. oblique convergence
gave rise to
– the development of island-arc, back-arc basins and
subsequently
– closure of the back-arc basins and lateral accretion
in the north at around 870-690 Ma and,
– continent-continent collision in the south at around
750-650 Ma.
– Implies that EAO is a product of complete Wilson
Cycle
 This is followed by
– Crustal shortening and escape tectonics to north
(640-550 Ma) along orogen parallel shear zones
– This produced fan shaped wide low grade rocks in
the north that wedges out to the south
 Kinship between ANS and MB cont..
 Thus, East African Orogen is a manifestation of a complete Wilson cycle (starting
from rifting and ending with collision).
 The final stage of closure of Mozambique Ocean and collision-accretion under
oblique convergence has initiated north ward expulsion of predominantly low-
grade rocks along orogen parallel shear zones; by what is called escape tectonics
(Stern, 1994, Fig. 6.).
 This produced a fan shaped wide low-grade belt in north that wedges out to the
south hinging in the MB (Fig. 7).
 The Escape tectonics and N-ward expulsion is accommodated by NE-SW extension
that produced NW-SE trending fracture patterns with strike-slip movement (eg.,
The Najid strike-slip fault of Saudi Arabia, The Surma shear zone of SW Ethiopia)
and associated extensional basins where post pan-African clastic sedimentary
deposits were accumulated.
 2: Survey of Geology of Ethiopia
2.1. The Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia within the framework of EAO.

the Precambrian geology of Ethiopia is situated

at the frontier of MB and ANS, hence is a key
element in the understanding of the EAO.
• Studies in that past shown that the
Precambrian metamorphic terraines of
Ethiopia have identified:
Precambrian geology of Ethiopian within the Context of
EAO
• Extensive N-S (orogen parallel ) shear zones that are
commonly situated along the contacts between contrasting
stratigraphic packages, most notably along the boundaries
between low- and high-grade rocks or rocks with different
rock package with different geochemical characteristics
– Wadera shear zone, Bulbul shear zone, Kentich shear zone and
others in southern Ethiopia
– Tulu-Dimtu shear zone, Gizan Shear zone, Baruda shear zone and
others in western Ethiopia
– Zager shear zone, Meda-kemtse shear zone, Darotekli shear zone
and others in northern Ethiopia
 Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia within the
Context of EAO geodynamic evolution
• The shear zones are commonly vertical or sub-vertical with
mylonitic fabric. Some of the shear zones are decorated by
sheared mafic ultramafic rocks (talc schist, serpentnite and
assocated altered ultramafic rocks). Kinamatic indicators in
the shear zones commonly indicate a strike-slip sense of
movements.
• Startigraphic, structural and to some extent, metamorphic
discontinuities across the shear zones.
• Occurrence of lences of high grade rocks in low-grade
terrane and visa-versa (e.g. Southern and western Ethiopia,
Fig. 3)
• Juxtaposition of different tectono-stratigraphic units with
unique stratigraphic, rock geochemistry and paleo-tectonic
environment
Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia in the Context of EAO
geodynamic evolution
• Examples:
– in northern Ethiopia, what was called Tsalite Group in previous work was subdivided
into 4 tectonic bounded tectono-stratigraphic terrines that have different rock
packages, geochemical characterstics and tectonic history ( Figure 8, Tadesse, 1997)
– In western Ethiopia What was called Lower and Upper complexes are subdivide into
possibly 7 microterranes along orogen parallel shear zones (Alemu and Abebe, 2002,
Ayalew et al. 1997, Tadesse, in prep, Fig. 9)
– In southern Ethiopia more than 5 high-grade with intervening low grade terraines
are identified (Bedru, 1996, Yihunie, 2001, Aweke et al. and Tadesse, in prep, Fig.
10),
• Across strike NW-SE shear zones (e.g. Didessa shear zone in western Ethiopia,
Surma shear zone in SW Ethiopia, Devidson, 1983, Alemu and Abebe, 2002)
• Age dating of time marking granitoids using precise methods indicated that
some of the granitoids in northern Ethiopia are older that what was called
Lower Complex rocks in southern Ethiopia (e.g. tonalitic gneiss of Yabello Group
dated at 750 Ma (Kroner and Tekly, 1997) while, tonalitic and granodioritic
composite syn-tectonic intrusive in northern Ethiopia was dated at 800 Ma,
(Tadesse et al . 2000)
 Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia in the Context
of EAO geodynamic evolution cont..
• These and other data indicate that the Precambrian geology of Ethiopia contains all the
elements of EAO (ophiolites, arc-volcanics and intrusive rocks (accreted arc and back arck
basin complexes), high grade rocks (collision related metamorphism), orgen parallel and
across orogen shear zones (structures of escape tectonic phase of EAO.
• The emerging data form the Precambrian geology of Ethiopia shows that
• Stratigraphic disposition of the Precambrian geology of Ethiopia is controlled by organ
parallel shear zones.
• Shear bounded tectonic blocks/terrains have unique stratigraphic package that cannot be
correlated across the shear zones. This suggests that the stratigraphy of Precambrian geology
of Ethiopia is best treated in terms of tectono-stratigraphic terrains as opposed to layer cake
geometry advocated in the previous works.
• Stratigraphic mismatch across the orogen parallel shear zones suggests that most of the
Precambrian tectonic bounded terrans are allochtonous (displaced from its original place to
new position by strike slip movement; ( perhaps during escape tectonic phase of EAO).
• Therefore, the three fold stratigraphic classification established for Ethiopian Precambrian
is no longer valid and needs revision
Summary of Precambrian Geology of Ethiopia
and Geodynamic evolution
 3. Paleozoic-Cenozoic Sedimentary Basins and rock Sequences of
Ethiopia

• Orogenic cycle culminates with mountain

building and uplift
• Hence, Paleozoic sediments are Products
of Post-Pre-Cambrian (Post EAO cycle)
denudation
• Associated to the up-lift, there has been
tectonics of different magnitude.
• Sedimentary rocks in Ethiopia are in one
way or the other, are related to the
following controlling mechanisms:
– Intermountain sedimentary basins,
deposits in intermountain lowlands
controlled by Precambrian structure
– Tectonic controlled basins (regional/
local extensional basins) and
– Sedimentary rocks related to
Volcanism and Tectonics
 3.1. Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary rocks
and basins of Ethiopia cont..
Sedimentary basins of Ethiopia
• Excluding thin Quaternary, unconsolidated sediment deposits
(e.g.those in the rift valley),
• Sedimentary rocks of Ethiopia are mainly
• exposed in 5 distinct basins

• These are:
3
1. The Ogaden Basin
2. Abbaya Basin
2
3. Mekelle Basin
4. Gambella Basin 4
5. Southern Rift Basin 1
5
Sedimentary basins, the naming and link….

• Much of the rocks are pre-Teritiary Volcanism and

Tectonics:
• Therefore:,
• the identification of these basins is mainly based on :
• exposures in restricted localities that are
– either never covered by the volcanic rocks (e.g. Ogaden)
– or cut by erosion after volcanism (e.g. Abbaya)
 Sedimentary basins-tectonic linkage
• Although concealed by younger strata, and
disrupted by subsequent tectonisim (ex. Rift
tectonics)
Sedimentological
Paleontological evedence
– Indicate that some of the basins are interlinked in
space and time and hence share similar tectonic
and sedimentologoical history
 Sedimentary basin-Tectonic link..
• Ogaden basin
• Abbay Basin and
• Mekelle Basin are
 Presumed to be a result of
continental rifting by
extension
 It is further inferred to be
related to the Break-up of
Gondwanaland in Late
Paleozoic
 Sedimentray basin-Tectonic link
• Gambella Basin is also
interpreted as rift
related
• It forms the South
western Extension of
Cretaceous Central
African Rift System
– This basin is part of
Melut Basin of the
Sudan (currently Oil
bearing)
 Sedimentray Basins cont’..
• The Southern Ethiopia
Rift Basin includes
– The omo basin
– Lake Chew Bahir Basin
– And is the Continuation
of Turkana Graben in
northern Kenya
– Which was developed
during the Paleogin
 Sedimentary basin-Tectonic link…
• Outside of these five basins, other
sedimentray succession are restricted to small
unknown basins
– They commonly occupy paleo-topographic lows
– Some are controlled by Precambrian structures
and hence the basis are elongated parallel to the
Precambrian structural grain
• Examples of these are exposed in western Ethiopia,
southern Ethiopia, and central Ethiopia
 3.3. Sedimentary Succession of Ethiopia
Age Grouping of the
sedimentary rocks

Criteria Used to classify

• Paleontological data (fossil)

• Polynological data (polyin grain dating)
• Indirect age dating method (dating inter-
beded, top and bottom volcanic strata)
• Correlation on basis of Lithological
similarities
The sedimentary rocks of Ethiopia are grossly
grouped into four age groups:
These are:
• Paleozoic Sedimentary rocks
• Mesozoic Sedimentary rocks
• Cenozoic Sedimentary rocks
• Quaternary sedimentary Rocks
 3.3.1.Paleozoic Sedimentary rocks of
Ethiopia
• Sedimentary rocks of these age are:
Either confined to topographic lows
Chanal filling or
Intra-cratonic rift basin
They are generally characterized by:
– Clastic nature (conglomerates, sandstones and
minor shale)
– Unconformable overlay Metamorphic rocks
 Paleozoic Sedimentary rocks of Ethiopia conti…
• Examples and Exposed in as:
 1. Western and south western Ethiopia (Benishagul-
Gumuse, Kaffa) within Precambrian as clastic sandstone
and conglomerates
 2. Southern Ethiopia (Gura Sandstone in Bale)
 3, Central Ethiopia (Abay Goarge, mostly tillites/
glacialas)
 4. Eastern Ethiopia (Soka sandstone in Harar)
 5. Northern Ethiopia (Enticho sandstone and Edaga Arbi
Glacial)
 6. At the base of Ogaden Basin (From deep drilling data)
Known as Karoo sediments including:
» Calub sand stone
» Gumburo sand stone and
» Boka Shale
3.3.1.1 Significance of Paleozoic sediments

– Most of the clastic sediments (such as those in

western, and southern parts) are regionally less
significant as they are confined to lowland areas
of Precambrian terrain.
But:
The Enticho sandstone, Edaga Arbi Glacial and the
Karro sediments are thick, regionally significant
in terms of Pale-Environment and Tectonic
Development!!!
 3.3.1.2. Paleozoic sedimentary rocks:
• 1. Entich sandstone
– Named after Enticho town Tigray
– It unconformable overly Precambrian Metamorphic rocks
– Has maximum thickness of 160-200 m
– Characterized by:
• white, coarse grained and friable sandstone
• At places calcareous and ferruginous coating materials
• Beds of siltstone, grit and conglomerate are common
• Large scale cross bedding
• At places, contains erratic boulders of granite and part of
metamorphic basement rock
 Paleozoic sedimentary rocks cont..
• 2. Edaga Arbi Glacials
– Named after Edaga Arbi village in Tigray
– Unconformably overly the basement
– Has maximum thickness of 150-180 mts
– Chracterised by:
– Conglomerates, sandstone (similar to the Enticho sandstone)
– It also contains siltstone associated to those
– The Siltstones are characterized by
– Variegated color, massive or thinly bedded, contain thin bands of shale
– Contains erratic boulders of granite, metvolcanics and other basement
rocks (most of which are striated/grooved) indicating glacial
transportation
 Paleozoic sedimentary rocks cont’..
• The Edaga arbi Glacial and Enticho sandstone are assumed to be of the
same age

Evidence:
– laterally inter-fingering/ inter-bedding
– Index fossil finding (Sxsena and Getaneh, 1983),
= Ordovician
Similar rock types are discovered in Abay River Basin, northern Africa/ Algeria),
Central and western Sahara, Morocco, Yemen.

This wide spread coverage of these rocks of Ordovician age tillite indicated that
this part of the planet/world was covered by ICE in Ordovician

= perhaps was polar region by Ordovician

 Paleozoic sedimentary rocks cont’..
3. Karoo Sediments
– Found in Ogaden basin (from deep drilling at Bodele)
– Named after Karoo graben formed due to rifting in Permian
– The Rift is Bifurcating NW-NE-SW forming rift-rift-rift triple junction
– The NW arm goes to NW up to Abaya Basin and north western Ethiopia
– The SW arm goes to SW through Kenya-Tanzania up to South Africa (where
classical Karoo sediments are exposed)
– Sub surface data indicates that at Bodele the rock comprises of
• Gumbro sand stone (at base, Quartzite sandstone, 85 mts thick))
• Bokh shale (green, red and yellow, balck and brown shale, 700 mt)
• Calub sandstone (at the top, Feldespathic sandstone, 85 mt thick)

• With total thickness exceeding 1500 mts.

 Onset of Gondwanaland
drifting by Ordovician
Karoo clastics /Pre-
Mesozoic/ Ordovician

Karoo rifting, rift-rift-rift triple junction

 3.4. Mesozoic to Cenozoic Sedimentary
rocks of Ethiopia
• Exposed in
• The Ogaden Basin
• The Blue Nile Basin
• Mekelle Basin
– Thin occurrences are
wide spread all over the
country,
Mesozoic to Cenozoic Sedimentary cont’..

• In the Absence of Paleozoic sediments, they

unconformable overly the basement
• Where there are Paleozoic rocks, they
disconformably overlay the Paleozoic
sediments (ex. Northern Ethiopia, Blue Nile
basin)
 Mesozoic –Cenozoic rocks of Ethiopia
• They are deposited following the Premo-
Triassic Karoo rifting in response to:
Continental drifting (Gondwanaland split)
Land Mass subsidence
Marian transgression
Land mass uplift and (due to Tectono-Magmatic
phenomenon, see later)
Marian regression
Mesozoic –Cenozoic rocks of Ethiopia

Reg
res
s i on

Tr
an
sg
re
s si
on
3.3.2.1. Details of Mesozoic –Cenozoic rocks of
Ethiopia
 3.3.2.2. Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary
rocks
Mekelle Basin
Gambella Basin
• Ambardam SST Fm. L. Cret.
• Teritiary Clastic/Fulluvial sedit.
• Agula Shale
• Upper Cretaceous Clastic Sediments
• Antalo Limestone
• Lower Cretaceous Sediment (Lacustrine/Fuluvial)
• Adigrat Sandstone

• Edagaarbi Glacials/

• Enticho Sst. (Ordovician)

 Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary rocks
details cont’..
•Ogaden
OmoBasin
Basin
• Karkar Fm (Mid-up. Eocene)
• Taleh Fm
• Auradu Fm
• Jossema Fm
Naroka Beds Holocene
• Belet
KibashiFm
Fm
• Ferfer FmFm
Shungura
• Musthill Fm.Fm
Nakalabong
• Gorrahi
Mursi FmFm.
• Gabredar Fm
Gilo-Kari and
• Urandab
Meti Fm
Sandstone (Permian)
• HAmanile Fm.
• Adigrat Fm
• Gumbro Fm
• Bokha Fm
• Calub Fm (Permian)
3.3.4. Summary, Mesozoic-Cenozoic
Sedimentary rocks….
Ogaden basin Blue Nile Basin N.Ethiopia Basin
Taleh

Karkar/Auradu

Jesoma Evaporites of Dallol

Belet Uen/Gumbro

Ferfer

Upper Sandstone Mustahil Upper Sandstone Ambaradom Sandstone

Gorahi
Gabredare Limestone

Uarandab Shale Agula Shale

Hamanlie Upper. H Hintalo Limestone (Antalo Hintalo Limestone

Ls.)
Middle H
Lower H. Goha Tsion bed
Adigrat Sandstone Adigrat Sandstone Adigrat Sandstone
Karroo Gumbro Sst Shiraro Frm.

Bokh Shale Trassic Sst of Dallol

Calub Sst BunniLimestone of Dallol
Chapter Four: Tertiary-Quaternary Volcanic rock
succession and related structure in Ethiopia

4.1. Rift Formation and Propagation

4.2. Variation of Tertiary-Quaternary volcanic rocks
4.3. Stratigraphy of Tertiary-Quaternary volcanic rocks

85
 4.1. Introduction

Tertiary-Quaternary Volcanic
rocks of Ethiopia are exposed
• Mainly at the central part
(high-standing mountains and
the MERV)
• Range in Composition from
Basaltic to Rhyolite
• Vary in mode of occurrence or
Eruption from Central to
Fissural
• Essentially controlled by
Tectonisim which gave rise to
the MERV
 Tertiary-Quaternary cont’
MER development and association to Volcanic
activity:
– The rifting has developed in response to
Mantle Plume with intern is derived due
to:
• Decompressive heating at mantle
resulted in Melt accumulation in the
lithosphere
• Up-ward migration of the melt as a
result of gravity
• Up-arching of the crust
• = Cracking as a result of tension
• Opening of Fissures
• Ascension of Voluminous basaltic
magma (300,000 Km3)
• => The Flood Basalt of Ethiopia
• => Trap Series
 Rift Formation and Propagation
Rift initiation..
– Following the up arching
the rift Valley started to
develop by Miocene
– Rifting Started at Red Sea-
Gulf of Aden-and Joins the
MERV (younger) at Afar.
– It forms Rift-Rift-Rift triple
junction
– Further south the MERV
dies out or bifurcates into
lake Turkana and Lake
Stifan and Reirehba Rift
south of Lake Chamo.
 Rift Formation and Propagation
• Some dating shows that
MER started at about 15
Ma.
• Followed by Episodes at
10, 5, 4, 1.8 and 1.6 Ma.
• Each phase of down
faulting/rifting was
associated with basaltic
to acidic volcanic
eruption
 Rift formation and propagation
• Rifting migrated from
Red sea-Gulf of Aden
through Afar to MER

• Implying SW youngling
rift propagation
 Elements of East African Rift System
• There are a number of regional
faults/lineaments which are associated to
the EAR system.
These include:
1. The Gulf of Aden Fault System
• This Forms southern margin of Afar
Depression and controls trends of
regional Lineament such as
– Addis-Ambo-Nekemte
Lineament
– Adwa-Axum Lineament
– Each of these lineaments are
deep-seated and expressed as
escarpments (Entoto), or
served as conduits for later
magmatic intrusions
 Lineaments associated to Rift System

2. The Red Sea Fault system

 It is NW-SE in orientation
 Separates the Denakil
Horest (Alps), Red sea and
Afar Depression
 It extends further south to
Southern Plateau expressed
as Marda Fault
Lineaments associated to Rift System cont’..

3.The Afar Rift

– Place where the three rift join
at R-R-R triple Junction
4. The Main Ethiopian Rift
– NE-SW broad rift
zone which extends from Lake
Chew-Bahir up to Afar,
– It extends to Lake
Turkana-Reirba-Chew-bahir
proto rift in the southwest
 4.2. Variation of T-Q Volcanic rocks
Regional Variation
• Associated to the rift development and its
evolution in time and space,
• Volcanic rocks varied in the following broad
aspects:
1. Type and mode of occurrence
2. Mineralogical and Chemical composition
3. Distribution in age
Regional Variations in Volcanic rocks cont’

1. It is established (with the exception of local

variation), volcanic activity/volcanicity youngs south-
west toward from NE following the Red sea-Afar-
MERV sequential rift development
2. It is also established that Volcanic rocks young rift
wards from Plateau (towards the axial zone where
there are still active spots)
– => Plateau basalt older that Rift Shoulder older than Axial
zone volcanic rocks
 Regional Variations in Volcanic rocks cont..
3. Through time (age), the mode of occurrence varied from:
– fault controlled Fissural type (typically Basaltic) to
– Localized Central type (typically felsic lava with minor basaltic) in any
given pulse (also known as Shield Volacnos)
4. Compositionally it varied from Uni-modial (basaltic, old) to
Bimodal (co-exisiting Baslt-Rhyolite younger end members)
5. Geo-chemically it varied from:
Alkaline-Mildly alkaline (olivine rich, oldest) to tholeiitic (iron
enriched) through Per-alkaline to calc-alkaline (youngest)
 4.3. Stratigraphy of T-Q volcanic rocks
• Several pulses of volcanic activities were recorded in
Ethiopia related to or preceded by major tetonsim.
• Originally, the stratigraphic classification of Volcanic
rocks of Ethiopia took the initiation of Rifting as a
threshold and classified the volcanics as:
• 1. Pre-rift Series (Oligocene - Miocene)
• 2. Post Rift series (younger than Miocene)
 T-Q Stratigraphy cont’…
Mohr (1962) gave structured
stratigraphic classification as Trap
and Aden Series
1. The Trap Series: = Pre-rift volcanic
rocks
• Includes pile of Teritiary flood
basalt with intercalated felsic lava,
pyroclastics of
• NW Plateau
• SE Plateau
2. The Aden Series: = Post-rift volcanic
rocks
Includes
• Mid Miocene to Quaternary
Volcanic rocks of
• the Main Ethiopian RiftValley,
• Afar Depression
• Some parts of Plateau basalt (ex.
Tana Rift Volcanics)
 Stratigraphy cont’..
4.3.1.The Trap-Series
– Also known as Plateau Group as they cover the
NW and SE Plateaus
– Commonly occur as Fissural following fault zones
and flow like flood hence flood basalt
– Because of its viscosity, they flow fast and cover
large area
– At places there are shield forming volcanoes in the
Plateau Group.
 Stratigraphy cont’..
– These group of Volcanoes include,
• from the oldest to the youngest:
1. Ashangi Group (1st pulse)
2. Aiba basalt Fm. (2nd pulse)
3. Alaji Basalt Fm. (3rd Pulses)
4. Termaber Basalt Fm. (4th Pulses)
– Examples of Shield forming Volcanoes in the Trap
series/Plateau Group include:
• Ras Dashin/Semen Mountains
– Similar In composition to Ashangi with more silicic and alkaline
rhyolites
• Tulu-Wolele
• Termaber-Gussa
Some more Silicic and alkaline centers are recorded from the
southern Eastern Plateau.
 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:
1. Ashange Formation
– Named After Ashangi in Northern Ethiopia
– The Earliest Fissural flood basalt on NW Ethiopia
– Several Hundereds of mt. to Km thick (the Thickest being
at Debrebrehan)
– Has a number of Flows (ranging from 5-6)
– Characterized by:
• Strong weathering, crashing and tilting
• Mildly alkaline in chemistry
• Mostly basaltic with interbeds of pyroclastics and rhyolit
• Some sedimentray rocks are present
• Equivalent in Southern Ethiopia is Akobo Basalt (49-36ma)
 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:
2. Aiba Basalt
– Named After Aiba, also given different type area names as
equivalent in other places
– The second major pulse of Fissural basalt flow in Northern
Ethiopia
– Unconformably overly Ashange
– Characterised by
• Affric basalt, fresh, at places showing stratification with
interflow acidic layers/mainly tuff
• Dated (34-28Ma) Late Olgo.- Early Miocene
• Equivalents:
– Arsi and Bale Basalt in SE
– Mekonnen Basalt in SW
– Wollega Basalt in Western Ethiopia
 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:
3. Alaji Formation
• Named after Alaji mountain in Northern Ethiopia
• Makes up the bulk of NW and SE plateau
• Conformably overlay Ashange and Aiba, in the
absence directly overlay the Mesozoic
• Represents the third major pulse
• Characteristics:
• Mostly Tholeiitic basalt at early stage and becoming
more alkaline in the younger members
• Has age range of 36-13 Ma
 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:
4. Termaber Formation
– Named after Termaber
– Represents the Shield Volcanoes in Plateau Group
– Chracterised by:
• Basaltic rocks,
• Alakaline chemistry
– Age range
– 26-16 Ma in the north
– 16-13 Ma in the south
– Marks the initiation of the MER
– Continued after the wards up to 7Ma
• E.g. Arba Gugu Mountains, Tulu Welel Trachyte of
central Ethiopia
 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:

4.3.2. Post Rift Volcanic rocks (Aden series)

• Commonly occur in the rift valley and adjacent plateau
– Occurs in:
• MER
• Afar Depression
• Omo Valley
• Some parts of the Plateau
• Formal stratigraphic names include:
– Meqdella Group
– Afar Group
Others of local importance that occur within the rift and marginal areas include:
• Boffa Basalt
• Nazert series
• Wonji Group
• Bishoftu Formation
• Adwa Formation (within Plateau)
• Ginner Fm (bale)
Most of these are alkaline, erupted through pre-existing fracture
 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:
• The Afar Group
• Exclusively occur in Afar area
• Divided into
1. Stratiod series
2. Axial range and (Rift axis)
3. Marginal range (Rift margin)
 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:
1. Stratiod Series
• Stratified volcanic sequence that includes basalts,
interlayered with ignimbrites and rhyolites
Characterised by:
– Flows, domes and pyroclastric deposits
• => Bimodal in nature (basic-acidic)
• 500-1000 mt thick
Age:
– Pleistocene-recent
 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:
2. The Axial Range
• Commonly occur along the axial rift zone
• Mostly basaltic with minor silicic rocks
• Transitional tholeiitic in chemistry

Characterized by:
– Fissural and central volcanoes
– Form ranges such as: Erta’ale, Tat’ale, Mada-hararo

• Age: range form Pleistocene to recent

 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:
3. Marginal Range
– These are stratified/strato volcanoes along the
margin of Afar depression
Characterized:
– Mostly over-saturated trachytes and rhyolites with
sheets of ignimbrite
– Also contain obsidian domes and pumice
Age: quaternary (0.55ma)
 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:
Adwa Formation
– Named after Adwa town in northern Ethiopia
– Widespread in northern, north western and western Ethiopia
– Less common in southern Ethiopia
– Cuts all the older basaltic formations and the youngest in plateau
Characterised by:
• Plugs of Trachytic and phonolitic compostion
• Also some flows and pyroclastics of the same composition
• Silica poor, sanadine rich to foid bearing
• Usually alkaline in chemistry
• Usually followed structural weak zones (e.g. Adwa-Axum lineament)
Range in Age: Neogine to Pleogine
 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:
Other Quaternry volcanics of Local Importance:
• Boffa basalt in Rift Valley
• Fissural baslt with thick ignimbrite
• 4-1.5.Ma in age range
• Nazret series
– Mostly ignimbrites
• Wonji Group:
– Related to NW-SE (across rift) Wonji Fault
– Fresh, olivine basalt with AA surface
 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:
Bishoftu Basalt
– Basalt with scoria cones, spatter cones
• Common at south of Addis Ababa (e.g. Butajira) and near rift
escarpment
• Eruption of these is controlled by transverse faults (across Rift
faults)
• Commonly alkaline in chemistry
Other Central Volcanoes of Quaternary age that Belong
to Post Rift series are:
• Fentale
• Boseti
• Tulu Moye
• Gedemsa
• Zukwala
All of these are fresh basalt with aa structure, caldera
forming, pentellritic in chemistry
 Stratigraphy cont’..
Description:
The Meqedella Group
– Commonly occur in Ethiopian Rift Valley
– Also known around Wondogenet, Dilla and Omo
Valley
– The thickest is around Meqdella (>500 mt)
– Chracterised by:
• Acidic tuff, rhyolites and trachytes with rare basic lavas
and aggolomarate
• Errupted through several centers
• Upper Pliocene in age
Summary T-Q volcanic rocks of Ethiopia
 Chapter Five: History of Exploration for
Earth Resources of Ethiopia

5.1. Mineral and petroleum exploration history

5.2. Challenges and problems of exploration companies
(Foreign)
5.3. Mining and mineral industry in Ethiopia
5.4. Sedimentary rocks and associated natural resources
5.5. Coal and oil shale occurrences in the Cretaceous
and Tertiary sediments

115
 5. History of Mineral Exploration of Ethiopia
5.1 Introduction

• Modern exploration for hard minerals in Ethiopia

commenced in 1867 during the British army
expedition under the command of General Napir.
• Blandford (his team), British geologist who first
established the name of most of the rocks and
lithostratigraphy of the rocks in Ethiopia,
– accompanied the army to study the geology and mineral
resources (deposits) of North Ethiopia.
• The first mineral concession was granted by E. Menelik II in
1898 (John Walsh, 1981).
• Later, during the occupation of Ethiopia by Italia the mineral
exploration activity accelerated.
• The Italians made an extensive exploration work for any
mineral deposit in Ethiopia during the five years occupation.
• The occurrence of potash salt was known in Dallol since 1906.
• It was mined by Italian firm during the 1st world war until the
late 1920’s and was the major source of potash for the allied
powers during the 1st world war for making explosives and
gun powder.
• The operation for potash by the Italian halted late 1920’s
due to
• the political difficulty from Ethiopians.
• In 1954 Ralph M. Parsons (USA Company) got a concession
• license for potash exploration and they conducted
exploration for
• several years and drilled more than 300 shallow boreholes.
• This exploration led to a discovery of a commercial
sylivinite (potassium chlorideand halite ) at Musley,
Dallol.
 5.1.2 Petroleum Exploration History
• The exploration for oil and gas in Ethiopia commenced
around 1920 by Anglo-American oil company (Walsh, 1980).
 However, only records of exploration done since 1949 are
on file in the Ethiopian Institute of Geological Surveys.
 The oil and gas exploration was interrupted due to the civil
unrest and the war made between Somalia and Ethiopia in
the Ogaden Region.
 To date 18 oil companies have conducted exploration for oil
&gas in Ethiopia and Red Sea;
 during the exploration about 46 exploratory boreholes
were drilled in Ogaden Basin.
 The depth of some wells reached 4500 m bellow surface, &
the cumulative depth drilled for oil and gas exploration was
about 110,000 meters.
• The EIGS was established in 1968 following a joint
Ethiopian Govt’ United Nation Mineral survey project.
• The UN continued to strengthen the Ethiopian Institute
of EIGS
• By employing expatriate experts, consultants, and
associate experts.
• In addition to the UN projects, there has been
bilateral (a little aid much loan) projects with
Yugoslavia, Great Britain, Israel, Canada, China, and
Soviet Union, European Economic Community, German
Democratic Republic and Italy.
• Geological survey is still trying hard to investigate the
mineral resources of the country.
• It is said that to date only 25% of the surface area of
Ethiopia is geologically mapped,
• A big job is awaiting for young geologists for the
years to come
 6.3 Problems of foreign Companies
• Most of the foreign companies who have conducted
exploration during the near past were junior (promoters
or broker).
• Their financial and expert capacities were extremely
limited.
• They do some work and sale the results of each piece of
work to bigger companies and manage to do the next
piece of work.
• Most of the companies are in a very serious financial
problems
• More than 85% of the exploration budget set by the company and
approved by the Government goes back to the country of
• They hire very expensive expatriate as exploration
manager, whose duty is mainly polishing the reports
written by the Ethiopian field geologist.
• The sample analysis is made abroad the money shown
as budget to spend in the country goes back to the
companies’ homeland.
• Some companies have drilled several exploratory
boreholes and used foreign drilling company.
• The company’s managerial people travel every where
and traveling cost is added to the exploration cost.
  Even some Companies import messengers &
drivers from neighboring country which is contrary
to the employment law of the country.
 The agreement implementation controlling system of
the Government is very loose.
 The exploration financial reports that the companies
submit every year to the Government is several times
exaggerated.
 This false financial report is aimed at collecting more
shares when mineral discovery is declared by the
company.
 6.4.Mining and mineral industry situation in Ethiopia

• Traditional mining in Ethiopia started perhaps thousands of years ago.

• Small quantity of iron ore have been smelted for the
manufacture of tools, utensils and weapons by local people.
• The history of traditional gold mining in Ethiopia also goes
back to biblical time.
• It has been proved by archeological study that during the
Axumit time (6th century A.D.) coins made of gold were in
use in North Ethiopia.
• During the last 60 years over 40,000,000 grams of gold was
produced by traditional miners from the Adola area only.
• The Ministry of mines recently reported that 10,00,000
grams of gold is smuggled out of the country every
year from the Adola area by the artisanal miners.
• This figure does not include the gold sold in the
country, according to the study made by the Ministry
of Mines there are up to 40,000 artisanal miners.
• This figure does not include the amount of gold mined
& number of artisanal miners in the west and northern
Ethiopia.
• The only known modern gold mine in the
country is the Adola gold mine.
• The modern mining plant established in 1988 at
Legadembi was designed to produce only 3 tons
of Au per annum and is an open cast mine.
• The mining industry in Ethiopia is insignificant &
is at its very low level because the explorations
made so far were not successful in defining ores
deposits.
• However, the discovery of mother lode-gold
(1980’s) in Adola area is promising & a lot has
to be made in western, southern, and
northern Ethiopia as well
• The low-very low grade volcano-sedimentary
belts are so far the best for base metals (Cu,
Zn, Pb, Ag etc & precious metals (Au, Pt &
other rare metals)
 6.4. Economic importance of the sedimentary Rocks

 The sedimentary rocks are known for their industrial minerals &
hydrocarbon occurrences and construction materials
 The sedimentary rocks of Ogaden Basin were searched for oil &
gas for the last 50 years.
 About 46 deep exploratory wells were drilled (with a total
footage of 110 km).
 Hydrocarbon shows in Hamanlei Formation in 10 wells have
been reported.
 As the result of the past exploration effort a discovery of
42.403x109 m3 gas and 1817x 103 tons of hydrocarbon
condensate were made.
 The gas and condensate were found in the Calub sandstone,
Gumbro sandstone & Adigrat sandstone.
 Is Petroleum available in Ethiopia?
•Petroleum system analysis (relationships between
productive source rock and the resulting oil and gas
accumulation, reservoir, seal, overburden (pressure),
processes (trap formation, oil and gas generation,
migration, and accumulation of petroleum) and basin
analysis (architecture and fill of depo-centers of Ogaden
Basin show the presence of live oil and gas in the basin.
•The presence of oil and gas in the basin show the
presence of matured source rocks in different part of the
stratigraphic section, in particular the presence of Bokh &
Urandab shales in the Karroo graben.
•And the fact that the geochemical work has shown that it
is the source for the gas and condensate in the basin.
• The trap at Calub was formed during Late Jurassic-
Early Cretaceous, with the gas and condensate in
the Adigrat and Calub sandstone reservoirs.
• In the Ogaden Basin there are two prime source
rocks: the Bokh and Uarandab Shales.
• The Uarandab Shale contains predominant type II
oil prone organic matter, and has reached early
upper oil maturity window in the early Tertiary in
the deeper part of Ogaden Basin, in the Bodle deep.
• But in Calub area it did not reach upper oil window
• To attain economically important oil from Uarandab
Fmn, structures should take Urandab Fmn down
deeper than its present regional position by early
Tertiary.
• The reservoirs expected to be charged by the
Uarandab Fmn, which are porous carbonates of the
overlaying Gabredare Fmn and of the underlying
Upper Hamanlei Fmn.
• Other than Source & Reservoirs what else is needed?
• Porosity, trap, seals, structures
• Porosity:- development can be controlled by the process of
dolomitization, structural joints, or sedimentological
(primary)
• Seals:- hydrocarbons trapped in the Gabredarre and Upper
Hamanlei reservoirs would have the benefit of regional seals
of Gorrahei Fmn Evaporite, and Uarandab Shales.
• Trap:- Structural trap, reef development and stratigraphic
traps are possibilities in the Upper Hamanlei and
Gabredarre Fmns
• Structures:-the critical risk with the traps is breaking by late
tectonic processes and the consequence of flushing of
reservoirs by fresh water (meteoric water) and migration of
oil to surface along fractures.
• In general the geological setup (position of
the source rock) & integration of the
processes (generation of oil and gas)
• in Ogaden Basin seems to be not in
accordance with the needed geological
setup situation for commercial
petroleum generation.
 2
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2
3

3
4
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2
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4
• For this reason, Ogaden Basin is classified as poor
petroleum basin. Because of poorly organized geological
setup it was not possible to find commercial amount of oil
deposit in the Ogaden Basin.
• But, there is chance to find more gas and condensate in a
stratigraphic trap.
• Particularly the presence of Merda fault belt in Ogaden is
of a major concern.
• However, Ethiopian oil might also be tapped under the
volcanic cover & also in other sedimentary basins; in
Gambella, Afar, & Mekelle.
• Coal and oil shale occurrences were reported
mostly in the Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments in
Jimma, Illubabor, N. Showa, Wollo and in the
Ethiopian Rift.
• One of the coal field in Illubabor is being evaluated
at present in detail for fertilizer and power plants.
• In the neighboring countries, like Sudan, Yemen,
and Somalia, the Cretaceous-Tertiary sediments
are petroleum productive.
• In the Ethiopian case these sediments are buried
under thick volcanic sequences which have
caused difficulty for exploration.
• Even, the Jurassic sediments underneath the trap
series could be petroleum bearing (indication of
oil seepage in Wereillu), but, because of the
exploration difficulties, the sediments underlying
or inter-bedding the trap series have got so far no
attention for petroleum exploration.
 Assignments
1. Economic importance of the Igneous
Rocks
2. Economic importance of the sedimentary
Rocks
3. Economic importance of the metamorphic
Rocks