FOREST MANAGEMENT

(GeFo4095)
Instructor: Esubalew Girma
Phone: +251949024564
Email: esubalew024564@gmail.com

1
 Terms used in Forest management

• Age class: Tree falling within defined age limit, grouped for
purpose of management
• Abnormal forest: Abnormal forest is one which is not normal, i.e.
growing stock, age, class, distribution of stems, increment, etc. are
either in excess or more usually in deficit than the normal forest.
• Block: Natural main division of a forest

• Coupe: Felling area (Numbered as I, II, III, IV)

• Compartment: A territorial unit of a forest permanently defined for

the purpose of administration, description and record
 Terms used in Forest management

• Forest irregular: Forest composed of trees of markedly different

ages (uneven aged)
• Forest regular: Composed of even aged wood

• Forest normal: A forest which for a given site and given object of
management is ideally constituted as regards growing stock, age
class distribution, increment and from which annual and periodic
removal of produce equal to increment can be continued
indefinitely without endangering future yield.
• Forest valuation: Branch of forest economics concerned with
valuation of forest estates, forest crops and their components
 Terms used in Forest management

• Felling cycle: The time which ellipses between successive

principle felling on the same area
• Growing stock: The sum of all the tree growing in the forest or a
specified part of it.
• Increment: Increase in girth, diameter, basal area, height, volume,
quality or value of individual tree or crops during a given period.
• Periodic block: The parts of a forest set aside to be regenerated or
otherwise treated during a period
 Terms used in Forest management

• Prune to: To remove live or dead branches of standing tree for

improvement of tree or its timber

• Regeneration: renewal of forest crop by natural or artificial means

• Rotation: Planned number of years between regeneration of crop

and its final felling

• Silviculture: art and science of raising forest crops

• Series: Management unit in which object is to maintain or create a

normal representation of age gradation.
 Terms used in Forest management

• Secondary felling: A regeneration felling carried out between

seeding felling and final felling under a shelterwood system (mother
tree are removed in a series of felling which are so planned that more
and more light is gradually admitted for growth of seedling on the
floor)

• Seeding felling: Canopy is opened so as to provide enough light for

the seedling to come up and ensure their survival in the initial stages

• Tending: Operation carried out for benefit of forest crop at any stage
of its life i.e. weeding, cleaning, thinning, prunning etc.
 Terms used in Forest management

• Thinning: A felling made in an immature stand for the purpose of

improving growth and form of tree, without permanently breaking the
canopy.

• Thinning cycle: Time elapse between successive thinning on the

same area

• Working plan: A written scheme of management aiming at a

continuity of policy and action and controlling the treatment of a
forest

• Yield: Volume or number of stems that can be removed annually or

periodically
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

At the end of this chapter students will be understand

 Definitions of forest management
 Understanding the scope of forest management
 Describing and categorizing the different objectives of forest
management
 Identifying factors affecting forest management
 Introduction

 Forest management is the process of protecting and maintaining a

forested area.
 Encompasses all the process and practices undertaken in a forest area
in order to lead and coordinate activities in forestry towards achieving
some defined goals or objectives.
 Attempts to effectively integrate the biological, social and economic
factors, which influence the decisions made towards the
implementation of one or more specified objectives.
 Introduction

 Forest management is the process of applying the scientific, technical

and economic principles of forestry in the planning, organization
and implementation of forestry activities in order to achieve the
objectives of forest owners (society).
– requires a plan
– assessment of the activities necessary to meet the objectives.
– recognition of the important ecological and social concerns
associated with a forest
– the application of Silvicultural practices so that a forest remains
healthy and vigorous
 Introduction

• The range of forest management activities can include

– tree planting, weed control, fertilization, precommercial thinning,
commercial thinning, final harvests, road construction, fire control,
etc
• Each activities involves a cost and a benefit
• Choosing the type of activities, their timing, and placement is
therefore important
 Introduction
Why forest management?
 Deforestation
 Landslides
 Extinction of thousands of species
 Extreme soil erosion
 Flooding
 Greenhouse effect
 Methods can be: Afforestation, Reforestation, SFM

 Afforestation is when new trees are planted or seeds are sown in an area
where there were no trees before and creating a new forest.
 Reforestation is the process of planting trees in a forest where the number of
trees has been decreasing.
 One of the major challenge in the outlook of forests in recent times is issue of
 Introduction

Scope of forest management

 Management of Forests, as that of any other enterprise, involves a
process of making and implementing policy decisions to achieve the
objectives of the owner.

 These decisions involve, in turn, a plan of action.

 it is an integration of Silviculture, protection, economics etc; yield
regulation is the core subject.
 Introduction

 Scope of Forest Management is very extensive; it encompasses

broadly, the following main activities:

A. Control of Growing Stock, its Structure and Composition:

Site adaptation
 Choice of species
 Manipulation of stands
Harvesting the produce
Regeneration vi. Protection.
 Introduction

B. Distribution and Marketing of produce:

Transportation and communication.
logging Plan
 Marketing data
Sale of produce
Revenue
C. Administration of Forest Property:
 Forest organization
 Management of Personnel
 Monitoring and control or works
 Labour management and welfare
 Financial control and economy efficiency
 Fulfillment of social obligations
 Record for present and future reference.
 Introduction

Scientific
Scientific Technical
Technical Economic
Economic
Geography,
Geography, Surveying
Surveying Economics
Economics &
& Business
Business
Climatology
Climatology Engineering
Engineering
Biology,
Biology, Soil,
Soil, Botany
Botany
Ecology,
Ecology, Pathology,
Pathology, Zoology
Zoology
Entomology
Entomology

Wild
Wild life
life management
management Forest
Forest economics
economics
Protection
Protection Grazing
Grazing ,, erosion
erosion Forest
Forest policy
policy
Control
Control Forest
Forest Administration
Administration

Silviculture
Silviculture Mensuration
Mensuration Logging,
Logging, Utilization
Utilization

Forest
Forest Management
Management
 Introduction
Objectives of forest management
 Primary objective of good FM is provision of maximum benefit for all time
within sustain yield.
 Forest exploitation involves the harvesting of forest products from a forest
without a regard for future returns from the same area.

 General objectives:

 Maintaining & raising productive capacity of soil & forest stands

 Promoting the protective effect of forest

 Satisfaction of rights of the right holder to meet basic need of locals

 Offering maximum possible volume of valuable timber & other products

 Securing the highest possible financial results

 Introduction

 Objectives can be classified as:

 Major(primary) & minor (secondary) objectives

 E.g: lumber as primary & fuel wood secondary objective

 Direct & indirect objectives

 E.g: biodiversity as direct & soil conservation indirect objective

 Objectives are defined at different levels:

 National wide objectives: often defined at sectorial policy levels

 Produce forest products for the need of people sustainably

 Increase forest cover & prevent desertification

 Maintain biodiversity resources

 Introduction

 Project/local objectives:
Production of lumber, poles & fuel wood for local market
Generate revenue to cover project cost
 Compartment/stand level objectives:
Max. volume production of good quality saw timbers
Production of electric power transmission poles
Production of round wood up to max. diameter
 Introduction

 Compartment level manag’t  To take these decisions one

objective is decided based on: should know:
 Species to be planted  Basic economy
 Rotation period  Quality of forest site
 Spacing  Management plan
 Tending operations  Tending operations
 Thinning out put  Tree growth & yield
 Harvesting out put  Determining allowable cut

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 Introduction

Factors affecting forest management

 Geographical factors
 Climate:
 Probably the most influential of all physical factors
 Determines habitat in a region & rate of forest growth
 Affects practicability of working in forest
 It may also determine relative attractiveness of sites for forestry
 Introduction

 Topography:
 It has an over-riding importance for human settlement & land use
 As forests are associated with mountains and hilly areas
 Soil & biological potential:
 Soil has significant effect on manag’t starting from deciding sp. to
be planted to logging operations,,,,
 Vegetation type & fauna may be considered together with soils
 Introduction

 Social and economic factors

 Population
 Utility of forest depends on the existence of people
 So, statistical aspects of demography & kind of society are
relevant
 Economic growth rate & urbanization affects demand of products
 The standard of living
 Z higher the income, the greater is consumption
 So, manag’t must pay attention to prospective demand changes

 CHAPTER TWO
PRINCIPLE OF SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY
At the end of this chapter students will be understand;
 Understanding the principle of sustained yield
 Understanding forest sustainability
 Identifying and describing forest sustainability criteria and
indicators (C&I)
 Sustainable forestry

• Sustainability: deals with ecology & economy at the same time

• Related to the concept of sustainable development
– Sustainable development is development which meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs
• Three aspects of SD
– Economical - able to produce goods and services on a
continuing basis
– Environmental - avoiding over-exploitation of renewable
resource systems or and depleting non-renewable resources
– Social - distributional equity, adequate provision of social
services
 Sustainable forestry

 Therefore, sustainable forest management will ensure that the values

derived from the forest meet present-day needs while at the same time
ensuring their continued availability and contribution to long-term
development needs
• Achieving SFM requires
– Understanding the principles that guide SFM
– Understanding the conditions that ensure SFM
– Understanding the causes/driving forces of unsustainable forest
management, forest decline, or deforestation.
 Sustainable forestry

• Immediate causes – factors that directly result in deforestation

– Clearing for agricultural expansion, forest fires, logging
• Underlying causes - fundamental forces that originate from factors
distant from agents of deforestation but influence their action
– Market failure
– Misguided policy interventions
– Population increase
Sustainable forestry
 Sustainable forestry

Principles of SFM
• Principle of SFM is the law or standard forwarded by UNCED,
1992- Toward the vision of sustainable use of natural resources for
the needs of present and future generations.
• Refer to a function of the forest or to a relevant aspect of the social
system that interacts with it
• SFM should assure people’s well-being
• SFM should assure healthy forest ecosystem
• There should be conducive environment for SFM (policy, law,
regulations, institutions, etc)
 Sustainable forestry
Internationally the principle of SFM is created to
– Conserve biodiversity
– Prevent forest conversion & protection of high conservation
value forests
– Have a management plan & harvest accordingly
– Reforest/afforest
– Use less damaging logging techniques (such as reduced impact
logging)
– Respect Indigenous people and local communities (IPLCs)
knowledge and needs
– Boost income and profitability
 Sustainable forestry
Key elements of SFM
a. Extent of forest resources
b. Biological diversity
c. Forest health and vitality (Power of continued existence)
d. Productive functions of forest resources
e. Protective functions of forest resources
f. Socio-economic functions
g. Legal, policy, and institutional framework
 Sustainable forestry

Planning SFM
• Managing forest sustainably is very crucial for the ecological, social,
economical enhancement.
• Planning for sustainable forest management requires answering:
– Why and how SFM? ---- Principles of SFM
• Maximizing the benefit of today’s and future society by
maintaining the economic, environmental/ecological, social
functions of forests
– How do we plan, implement, and monitor SFM?
– developing criteria and indicators related to the above
functions of forests
 Sustainable forestry
• The sustained yield of a forest is the total amount of material it can yield
annually or periodically in perpetuity (for all time), without reducing the
value of the forest.
– It is the yield a forest can produce continuously at a given intensity of
management.
– implies continuous production so planned as to achieve a balance between
increment (growth) and cutting (harvest).
• Sustained yield important for the following reasons
– keeps industries or markets constantly supplied and avoids periods of
shortage or surplus
– promotes the establishment of stable prices which benefits both buyers
and sellers
– make the best use of equipment and personnel allocated to the operations
– helps to provide steady employment for workers
– leads to a steady flow of regeneration and tending operations in the forest
– produces a regular flow of income for the owner of the forest
 Sustainable forestry
 Successfully achieving SFM will provide integrated benefits:
 Safeguarding local livelihoods
 Protecting biodiversity
 Reducing rural poverty, &
 Mitigating climate change
 In simpler terms, it is the attainment of balance b/n society's
increasing demands and the preservation of forest health
 Sustainable forestry

Criteria and indicators of SFM

 Are policy instruments by which sustainability of forest management
in the country progress towards SFM may be evaluated and reported
on.
 C&I is a conjunctive term for a set of objectives and the
variables/descriptions allowing to evaluate whether the objectives are
achieved or not.
 Criteria and indicators of SFM helps
 Describe, monitor, assess and report on national forest trends
 Facilitate policy dialogue and the development of polices or
strategies
 Implement forest related polices, plans and programs
 Guide for forest management practice
 To develop forest certification principles, standards and indicators
 Sustainable forestry

• Criteria - standards by which progress towards meeting the Principles can

be judged
– define the particular state or conditions of the forest that we would
expect to see if the Principle it supports is adhered to
– relates to a key management factor which may be described by one or
more qualitative, quantitative or descriptive indicators.

• Indicators - Indicators are the components or variables of the forest or

management system that imply or ‘indicate’ the state or conditions required
by a Criterion
– Are measurements to assess and evaluate the effects of forest
management action, or inaction
 Sustainable forestry

 C 1.1: processes that maintain biodiversity in managed forests

 I 1.1.1 Landscape pattern is maintained

 I 1.1.2 Change in habitat diversity due to human interventions

 I 1.1.3 Community structures do not show significant changes

 I 1.1.4 No significant change in quality & quantity of water

 Principles of Forest Planning

• From Word Format

38
 Chapter three
Elements and methods of forest management

At the end of this chapter students will be understand:

 Basic elements of forest management plan
 Developing, evaluating, and applying prescriptions
 Describing and classifying forestlands for management purpose
 Predicting forest condition and outcomes
 Basic elements and methods of forest management
Prescription development
• Prescription is a schedule of activities for some stand or parcel of
forestland
 Is concisely written specification in forest management plan that
translates an objective into an operational activity
 Developing, evaluating and implementation of prescriptions are
central activities in forestry.
 Applied to individual stands &/or to the entire forest property
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Its formulation integrates:

 Strategies of land classification
 Basic & applied biological knowledge of Silviculture
 Growth prediction techniques of mensuration
 Economic valuation, &
 Decision making
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Guidelines for formulating management plan prescriptions

 Should be clearly written, & related to specific management
objectives
 Should not be vague or ambiguous
 Should not be too long/technical as they may be misunderstood
 Only include material relevant to support execution of
objectives
 Must be measurable for monitoring purpose
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

• Example
– For Cupressus lusitanica stand on erosive soils but less steep
slopes (less than 30%), site indices over 30, and basal area greater
than 30m2/ha, undertake commercial thinning using tractor
logging to reduce basal area to 20m2/ha followed by a final
harvest in 5 years.
– Site preparation should be made with spot hoeing and planted the
same year and weeding by spot weeding
 Basic elements and methods of forest management
Forest stands types and respective management prescriptions
 Basic elements and methods of forest management
Elements of prescription development
 The three essential elements of a prescription are:

1. A land type classification

2. Implement (management “activity schedule”)

3. Predicting forest condition and outcomes

 Basic elements and methods of forest management
1. land classification
 describes parcels of land by location, stocking, sp., soil, slope, & other

attributes
 Forest area is heterogeneous in terms of various characteristics
 Hence, classifying forestlands into homogeneous units is necessary
 It is the first element as it sets stage & context of activities
 Done by considering some relevant features of forest area that are:
 Relevant for yield prediction, location & implementation, &
 Related to physical, vegetation & development characteristics
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Physical characteristics

– includes the set of attributes used to characterize the permanent, physical

nature of forest land, including topography, soils, bedrock, climate,
hydrology
 Vegetation characteristics

– are the set of attributes used to characterize tree and other vegetation currently
growing on forestland, including height, age, basal area, volume, diameter,
etc.
 Development characteristics

– include the set of attributes used to characterize the organization,

development and accessibility of forest land for human use, including
ownership, roads, building etc
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

Example:
• Physical characteristics:
– Slope: Gentle (G), moderate (M), steep (S)
• Vegetation characteristics
– Forest type: Natural (N) vs Plantation (P)
– Natural Forest vegetation: closed (NC), disturbed (ND), open
(NO)
– Plantation forest Vegetation: Cupressus (PC), Eucalyptus
(PE), mixed (PM)
• Development Characteristics
– Accessibility to roads: close (<1km) (RC), far (> 1km) (RF)
– Settlements: close (<5km) (SC), far (>5km) (SF)
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

S
RF
M

G
RC
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

• Forest map
S, NC, RF, SF

M,NC,RF,SF

M,ND, RF,SF M,NO, RF,SF

G,PM, RF,SF

G,PE, RC,SC
G,PC, RC,SC
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

Land cover classification Slope class

Forest management prescription

 Basic elements and methods of forest management

2. Management activity schedule

 describing the timing, methods, and conditions by which the vegetation and
other resources will be manipulated or disturbed to achieve desired
outcomes, including:
• Logging rules
• A timber thinning and harvest schedule
• Regeneration techniques for the next tree

3. Predicting forest condition & outcomes

 Numerically describes how much timber is expected for commercial harvest
 Specifically, volumes removed at each thinning & final harvest entry for
 Basic elements and methods of forest management
Forest management planning
 A logical & practical management plan has four main parts:
 Part I: Basic information
 Geographic, ecological, social & industry information
 It is helpful to identify managerial implications of specific features
Basic elements and methods of forest management
 Basic elements and methods of forest management
 Part II Management goal & specific objectives
 One goal, e.g.: primary objective related to wood production
 Several specific objectives, like forest protection, wood & non-wood
production, including social development, research, etc
 Part III: Management prescription
 Prescriptions should be explicit, related to objectives
 A plan having sustainable wood production as primary objective should, as
minimum, include prescriptions on:
 Forest and land use zoning
 Continuous forest inventory
 Tactical harvest planning
 Forest protection & security arrangements
 Diagnostic sampling
 Specification of appropriate Silvicultural systems & operations etc
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Part IV Annexes
 Should include:
 Maps, including remote sensing imagery
 Different formulas
 Technical details of topics expressed in Part I
 Records of forest History:

– Comprehensive compartment records of forest operations

» If practicable, using computer database
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Guidelines for forest management planning

 Plan should be prepared in conformity with forest policy & legislation

 There should be responsible office like government forestry office

 Once it is started every effort should be to complete the plan

 The process should provide affordable solutions for past managerial

problems
 Assemble base maps & satellite imagery to compile forest maps

 Planning team must visit & acquire good visual knowledge of all parts

of a forest, villages & dependent industries

 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Summarize managerial implications of specific features

 It should focus on decisive issues expected to influence manag’t

 This will become link b/n objectives & prescriptions in a plan

 A plan should not be long-preferably not more than 5 objectives

 Many people can contribute towards drafting but one should finalize it

 Avoid specifying too many priorities for action

 It must be affordable & support implementation of reasonable budget

 They must include provision for review at pre-determined intervals

 Dialogue with all people having interest should be encouraged

 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Management plan approval

 Basic requirements for gaining approval:
 When completed, executive summary should be done
 Principal features should be discussed with senior staff
 It should pass by the approving officer with support of cover letter
 Plans on private forests must be approved by gov’t forestry
authority
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Harvest planning
 Provides balanced & comprehensive foundation for sustainable
harvesting to enable good technical control while reducing costs
 Are of 2 types, strategic & tactical
 A map & written plan are basic components for both

I. Strategic harvest plan: explains why, where, when & what type of
harvesting is proposed
 Can’t be done without considering issues which affect forest manag’t
 It should never be separate plan independent of forest manag’t plan
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Should rely upon knowledge of:

 Forest area zoned for wood/other aims
 Annual or periodic cut for wood products
 Silvicultural systems to be applied
 Maps should show:
 Forest & non-forest areas, topography, infrastructure
 Areas where harvesting is proposed
 Areas where major problems exist, such as rock, river etc
 Location of communities that may be affected by harvesting
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Strategic plan should briefly describe items on the map & include:

 Silvicultural system to be applied, & why

 Explanation of how harvesting is expected to achieve objectives,,,

 Description of types of harvesting equipments

 Tabular summary, derived from general forest inventory

 Schedule showing year when each felling area is to be harvested

 Summary of special problem areas

 Annual labour requirements for harvesting

 Arrangements for accommodation, safety & recreation of staff

 Estimated cost of harvesting

 Basic elements and methods of forest management

II. Tactical harvest planning: short-term plan, prepared by a team

directly responsible for supervision of harvesting operations
 Explains how & who will carry out operations & when it will be done
 It should be linked through annual plan of operations
 Formulated for operational part of a year, e.g.: a dry season
 Basic steps involved are:
 Pre-harvest inventory to identify tree sp., estimate volume of trees
 A detailed topographic map should be drawn
 Divide felling area into administrative units, termed cutting units
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Specific planning requirements for tactical harvest planning:

 It should be based on harvesting prescriptions set out in the plan
 Volume to be extracted & seed trees to remain should be specified
 Should be prepared jointly by forest planners & loggers
 Specify harvesting equipment's & schedule harvesting operations

• In consultation with local communities

• It should be flexible & be quickly modified, when necessary
• E.g.: should anticipate storms, protection of endangered
animals etc

 Basic elements and methods of forest management

Forest growth and yield

 Growth: is biological phenomenon that result in change of selected
stand attribute such as DBH, BA, volume over a given time
 Involves formation & expansion of new cells, tissues or organs
 Growth of a stand or tree is result of: -Increase in DBH & height, &

-Change in form (shape)

 Growth rate of any given forest stand is largely determined by:
 Productive capacity of the site
 Amount & composition of growing stock present in the stand
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Growing stock: volume of all living trees with minimum 10cm DBH
 Includes stem from ground level up to a top diameter of 10 cm,
excluding smaller branches, twigs, foliage, flowers, seeds, & roots
 Specific growing stock characteristics of importance are:
 Species present
 Number of trees by sp. class categories, &
 Spatial distribution of trees
 All of these characteristics are subject to control by forest manager
 This is done via selection of Silviculture & harvesting strategies
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Yield: is the total amount available for harvest at given time

 Can be regarded as the summation of annual increments

 There are different types of yield:

 Final yield: all material derived from main felling in a regular forest

 Intermediate yield: derived from operations preceding main felling

 Normal yield: yield from a normal forest

 Total yield: standing vol. of crop plus total vol. removed in thinning

• i.e.: the sum of the final & intermediate yields

 Sustained yield: derived annually/periodically in perpetuity
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Principle of sustainable yield

 Implies to achieve balance b/n increment & harvest
 It is important for the following reasons:
 Keeps markets constantly supplied & avoids shortage/surplus
 Promotes establishment of stable prices
 Make best use of equipment & personnel allocated to operations
 Provides steady employment for workers
 Produces regular flow of income for the owner of the forest
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

Forest Stand Structure

 distribution & description of age &/or tree size classes

 The result of species growth habit, locality factors & management practices

 Keeps changing with time

 Distribution can be described by:

• Species
• Vertical/horizontal spatial patterns
• Size of parts of trees, including volume, leaf area, cross-section
• Tree age, & combination of the above
 Broadly classified into two groups: even-aged & uneven-aged
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

Even aged stand

• Are stands where all the trees are born or initiated at about the same

point in time, and while tree sizes will increase as the stand ages.

• They have definite beginning and endings and are easy to

conceptualize and schedule for cultural practices and harvest

• Clearly defined stand age is used to guide decisions about when to

treat and harvest.

 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Characteristics of even aged stand

 The number of trees decreases continuously due to mortality as the
stand ages.
 The height of dominant and co-dominant trees increases
throughout the life of the stand equaling the site index at a
reference age.
 The diameter at breast height of the average tree increases
throughout the life of the Stand and the smaller trees within the
stand suffer a disproportionately higher mortality rate.
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 The basal area increases throughout the life of the stand in some
species such as pines, the normal basal area rises to a plateau and
remains fairly constant from then on.
 Gross and net yields both rises throughout the life of the stand,
with net yield gradually falling below gross yield as mortality
accumulates. Eventually both gross and net yields will peak and
decline as the stand begins to fall apart due to aging.
 Net yield reflects the amount of yield available for removal at any
age while gross yield reflects the total produced on a particular
site.
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Rotation age is major factor that influences management

prescriptions
– Is the final age when the stand is harvested
 Clear cutting is the main Silvicultural system

– E.g.: young, old, middle age--clear cutting--site preparation --

planting
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

Volume (m3/ha)

III
thinning Final harvest
II
thinning
I
thinning

Rotation period

2 30yrs (rotation age)

Yield in an even aged stand

Thus, yield = Vol thinning (I+II+III) + Vol of final harvest

 Basic elements and methods of forest management

Uneven aged stand

• Uneven aged stands are distinguished by lacking a definite beginning
or ending in time.
• Trees on any given ha vary by age as well as size and frequently are
of several different species.
• Throughout most of their lives the trees compete for light or moisture.
• Management prescriptions are related to a periodic cycle or partial
harvest and specify the species and size structure of the residual stand
left after a harvest.
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 The growth and life patterns of uneven-aged stands, unlike the even-
aged stands, follow a different style.
 The interval between harvests in an uneven-aged stand is called the
cutting cycle.
 A cycle starts with a harvest that leaves a certain volume of reserve
growing stock.
 This volume grows for the number of years in the cycle, and then a
harvest cut removes the merchantable portion of this growth, plus or
minus what ever adjustments are desired in the reserve growing stock
to initiate the next cycle.
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Reserved growing stock is volume of living trees left after harvest.

 Growing stock volume can be measured at any time during any cycle

– after a cyclic cut - gives the volume reserved for future growth
– just before a cyclic cut- gives the volume available just before the
next harvest.
– mid-way through the cycle - the midpoint volume of growing
stock upon which growth is made.
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Conceptually we assume regeneration in uneven-aged stands to be

continuous, with new trees starting under the canopy of the residual
stand at a steady rate.
 However, in reality regeneration is irregular and periodic
depending on
 seed sources,
 the creation of opening,
 and scarification of the soil during periodic harvests.
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

Volume
Harvested volume

Reserve growing stock

Yrs

Cutting cycles Yield in un even aged stand

 Basic elements and methods of forest management

Timber harvesting and regulation of the yield

 The harvesting of timber on a sustained yield basis from a natural
stand requires that the yield should be regulated to prevent over-
cutting.
 Conceptually, harvesting is linked to the idea of rotation; but when
trees are harvested as they approximate to maturity) the rotation age
has little relevance in deciding the time to harvest.
 The area cut annually in each felling series (the annual coupe) is
calculated by dividing the area of the felling series by the period of
the cycle.
 Basic elements and methods of forest management
• Annual coupe = area of the felling series
by the period of the cycle
Example:
Class I Species
Species Chlorophora excelesa
Net productive area 2678ha
Felling cycle 25 years
Girth(m) 0.91-1.52 1.53-2.14 2.15-2.74 2.75-3.35 3.36-3.96 3.97-4.57 >4.58

No of trees on 1018ha 439 554 414 525 137 137 32

Basal area(m2)

Total basal area(m2)

 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Calculate;
 Annual coupe
 Basal area of each class
 Total basal area of a given area
 Estimated basal area on 2678ha
 Annual yield with 50 divisor
 Show distribution of yield in annual yield
 Basic elements and methods of forest management
• Annual coupe = area of the felling series
by the period of the cycle

= 2678ha = 107ha/year
25 years
Girth(m) 0.91-1.52 1.53-2.14 2.15-2.74 2.75-3.35 3.36-3.96 3.97-4.57 >4.58

No of trees on 1018ha 439 554 414 525 137 137 32

Basal area(m2) 147.4 195.8 240.2 145.8 198.5 60.9

Total basal area(m2)

988.6

 Basal area = average diameter of each class multiply by number of

trees in a given area
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

Estimated basal area of approximtely on 2678ha = 988.6m2 x 2678 ha

1018ha

= 2600.6 m2

Annual yield with 50 divisor = 988.6 m2 x 2678ha

1018ha x 50

= 52.0m2
Circumference 1.53-2.14 2.15 – 2.74 2.75-3.35 3.36-3.96 3.97-4.57 4.58+
(m)
No of trees per 58 44 34 14 14 3
coupe of 107 ha
Basal area(m2) 15.49 20.81 25.19 14.90 20.34 5.67
Yield of 52.0 11.1 14.90 20.34 5.67
m2 from
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 The numbers of trees falling in different diameter classes in the 107

ha forest are presented in the above table.
 The basal area calculated for each class is also given.
 Cutting starts from the bigger diameter class and goes down until the
allowed basal area is harvested fully in one year.
 This implies that if the allowable basal area is surpassed and felled
beyond that limit, the forest is not being managed on sustainable way.
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

Dynamics of growth on forest stands

 Stand structure changes from yr. to yr. due to growth, death & cut
 Thus, many growth problems are best understood by considering:

• Stand population of trees & changes in the structure

 E.g.: if two estimates are made for the same stand at d/t times:

• Net growth = the difference of two estimates

• To realize composition of net growth it is crucial to recognize
what happens b/n period of estimates
Some trees are alive & are measured at both times

 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 To estimate the growth or increment of the volume over successive

time a number of growths parameters must be known, clearly
understood and estimated.
• These are:
– Ingrowth:- is the volume of new trees growing into measurable
size during the measurement period.
– Mortality:- is the volume of measurable trees dying during the
measurement period.
– Cut:- is the volume of cut timber felled during the measurement
period
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Combining these three measures of stand change with the volume of

living trees at the end gives the components normally used to estimate
stand growth.
 Symbolically, the stand components can be represented by :

 V1 = Vol. of living trees at beginning of measurement period

 V2 = Vol. of living trees at the end of measurement period

 M = Vol. of mortality over period

 C = Vol. of cut over period
 I = Vol. of ingrowths over period
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Growth and yield prediction

 Management decisions are often based on past & present conditions
 This helps to track changes in growth, mortality, & ingrowth over
time
 To make predictions of future growth & yield, w/c is used to:
 Update forest inventories
 Provide input for forest management planning
 Evaluate stand management opportunities
 Methods: way of estimating (extrapolating, projecting, forecasting)
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Using past growth percentage

 Tree growth in % terms is an expression of the average rate of change
in size or volume over a given time period
• Assumption: future growth will proceed at same rate as the past
 Used for predicting short period 3-5 yrs, as vol. growth is not linear
𝑉2−𝑉1
× 100
𝑉1 𝑉2−𝑉1
𝑛 𝑛𝑥𝑉1
Growth % = =
Where, V1 = Volume at the start of growth period

V2 = Volume at the end of growth period

n = Number of years in growth period

 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 E.g.: Vol. of stand has 100m3/ha, 2 years later it reaches 150 m3/ha.

What will be the vol. after 3 years from now?

Solution: 1st, calculate past growth rate in the past 2 years:

Given: V1 = 100m3/ha, V2 = 150m3/ha, n = 2 years

× 100
150−100
2𝑥100
Growth % =
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Stand table projection: direct methods of growth prediction based on

analysis of stand from measured variables
 Creates future stand table from current ones using past DBH growth

• Stand table: gives number of trees/ha & diameter distribution

 Projections are made according to DBH classes best suited to uneven-

aged, low-density & immature timber stands

 Procedure for growth prediction using stand table

 Conventional inventory showing no. of trees in each DBH class

 Basic elements and methods of forest management

 Past average diameter growth & average tree mortality rates are determined

from periodic measurements of PSPs, for each DBH class

 Then, growth can be projected for each DBH class/ha

 The procedure is:

• Determine movement ratio (growth index ratio (GIR))

= g/i, where, g = average growth for DBH class

i = size of class width

• Then, this ratio times no. of trees in the DBH class = No. of trees moved
to next higher DBH class (upgrowth), &
• The upgrowth value will be subtracted from the diameter class
 Basic elements and methods of forest management

• Trees that have moved from the next lower diameter growth will
constitute ingrowth & thus will be added to the diameter class
• If the ratio is >1, then the value after the decimal point indicates
the proportion of trees that have moved two diameter classes while
the difference have move one diameter class
• Numbers of trees in each class must then be corrected for expected
mortality & predicted ingrowth
 Chapter four
forest regulation

 At the end of this chapter students will be understand;

 Understanding classical strategies for forest regulation
 Understanding the concept of a normal forest
 Regulating even and uneven-aged stands including natural forests
 Forest regulation

 Forest regulation is planned forest operation to achieve specific future

forest conditions w/c is designed in terms of:

 Species & age class distribution- for even aged forests

 Species & diameter class distribution- for uneven aged forests as

harvesting is based on diameter in natural forest

 Determines what, where, how much & when timber harvesting is

done

 It is based on the model of the ideal ‘normal forest’

 Forest regulation

 Regulated forest: is one that yields sustainable periodic harvest of

about equal volume, size & quality
 3 important concepts in forest regulation:
Allowable cut
sustained yield &
normal forest
 Allowable cut: annual harvest vol. without diminishing growing
stock
 Sustained yield: yield a forest can produce continuously
 It is achieved by not cutting more than the annual allowable cut
 Forest regulation

 The normal forest is a conceptual model for forest regulation that was developed

in Germany and France.

 The model is predicted on cutting fairly small uniform blocks of even-aged

timber.
 The management objective was maximum timber production.

 The normal forest is defined as one having:

– normal increment “maximum possible growth for the site’’

– normal age class distributions “series stands of equal productivity varying in

age by equal intervals’’

– normal growing stock levels “fully stocked for max. growth’’

– equal site condition.

 Forest regulation
 Generally, in normal forest:
 All stands in the forest are fully stocked
 Have equal growth and yield
 All age classes occupy equal area
 The oldest stand equal the age of the rotation age
 Annual harvest is equal to annual growth
 Forest regulation

 Its management can be demonstrated by assuming 25 ha forest on

25 yr. rotation with 25 stands, each 1 yr. older than the next
1975 1976

1977 1999
 Forest regulation

 A normal forest and a regulated forest are not the same thing.
 The difference is that all normal forests are regulated but not all
regulated forests are normal.
 A normal forest is a maximum concept (maximum increment) and
deals with an even-aged forest.
 Regulated forest may be even or uneven-aged and need not produce
maximum increment.
 Thus, a normal forest is a special case of a regulated forest.
 Forest regulation

 Yield regulation: once the structure of ideal forest has been decided,
it is necessary to plan manag’t of a given working cycle
 Manag’t procedure leading to this result is called yield regulation
 Has 2 functions: -Determination of yield amount & how to achieve it

-Preparation of felling plan

 It’s expression in a management plan prescription includes:
 Where to harvest?
 When to harvest?
 How much should be harvested?, &
 How yield must be extracted i.e. either main/intermediate felling?
 Forest regulation

 Objectives for regulating yield:

 To cut each crop/tree at maturity
 To obtain max. yield of the desired produce
 To cut equivalent quantity of materials annually/periodically, &
 To limit the area to be felled to that which can be regenerated
 Generally, if wood is harvested on sustained yield basis:
 Growth = Harvest; regulated forest structure
 Preferred approaches for forest regulation can differ for:
 Even-aged & uneven aged stands owing to difference in structure
 Forest regulation

 Assume:

 Vi = volume/ha in age class i

 Vti = total volume in age class i

 a = area per age class

 g = average annual/ha growth for the forest

 G = total annual growth for the forest

 H = total annual harvest for the forest

 MAIR = mean annual increment for rotation age stands

 A = total area of the forest

 Forest regulation

 The number of hectares in each age class (a) = A/R

 Total volume in age class i (Vti)=(a)× (Vi)= avi

 The total volume of growing stock in the forest is

• Vgs = Vt1 + Vt2 + Vt3 + . . . + VtR , or

• Vgs = av1 + av2 + av3 + . . . + avR

 The annual harvest (H) = VtR = avR

 Total annual growth of the forest (G) = H = VtR = avR

 Average annual per hectare growth (g) = G/A = avR/aR

• g = MAIR

 Annual harvest (H) = avR = (A/R) vR =(A)(vR/R)

106
 Forest regulation

 Example: A sugar factory intends to establish a plantation with a

species growing according to the previous table and planned to
harvest and consumes fuel wood amounting to 20,000m3 per year.
 Assuming stands less than 6 years old to be non-harvestable,
determine the following values for each of the options of managing
the forest with rotations between 6-30 years.
 Forest regulation

 Calculate

– Annual cutting area (a) at each rotation age

– Total forest area (A) required for sustained yield

– Total growing stock (Vgs) in the forest

– How much percent of the total growing stock will the annual
harvest (20,000m3) be
– If forestland has to be leased, which rotation will require the
smallest area of land for rent?
 Forest regulation

 Annual cutting area (a) at each rotation age

– Annual harvest (H) = avR → a=H/VR that is for rotation age 23yr

– a23=20000/853.4=23.4,
– a24=20000/878.1=22.8
– a25=20000/900.9=22.2,
– a26=20000/922=21.7,
– a27=20000/941.4=21.2,
– a28=20000/959.3=20.8,
– a29=20000/975.8=20.5,
– a30=20000/990.8=20.2
– Where a23,a24 a25,…a30, are annual cut area (a) at rotation age of 23yr, 24yr,
 Forest regulation
Age Vol/ha MAI a =H/Vi A=a*R GS
(ha) (ha) %GS
6 143.1 23.8 139.8 838.8 20000+
7 189.1 27 105.8 740.6 35146.76
8 237.8 29.7 84.1 672.8 47937
9 288 32 69.4 624.6 59545.2
10 338.7 33.9 59.05 590.5 70665.14
11 389.2 35.4 51.4 565.4 81515.26
12 438.8 36.6 45.6 547.2 92326.32
13 487 37.5 41.1 534.3 103230.87
14 533.6 38.1 37.5 525 114198.75
15 578.1 38.5 34.6 519 125369.64
16 620.5 38.8 32.2 515.2 136653.58
17 660.6 38.9 30.3 515.1 148606.35
18 698.4 38.8 28.6 514.8 160242.94
19 733.8 38.6 27.3 518.7 172991.91
20 767 38.4 26.1 522 185406.57
21 797 38 25.1 527.1 198307.57
22 826.7 37.6 24.2 532.4 211203.08
23 853.4 37.1 23.4 538.2 224181.36
24 878.1 36.6 22.8 547.2 238462.92

25 900.9 36 22.2 555 252187.56

26 922 35.5 21.7 564.2 266515.06
27 941.4 34.9 21.2 572.4 280331.84
28 959.3 34.3 20.8 582.4 294996
29 975.8 33.6 20.5 594.5 310745.15
30 990.8 33 20.2 606 326211.82

Total
14,360.4ha 4,156,978.68m3
 Forest regulation

Regulation of even-aged forest

 In even-aged stands management regulation of forest uses the model
of ‘normal forest’ to achieve a forest structure that produces a
sustained yield.
 A normal forest is a forest consisting of stands of all age classes
distributed on equal area of the same productivity giving maximum
production of the required product on a perpetual basis.
 The management of even-aged stand is characterized by the
application of clearly defined rotation periods.
 Forest regulation

 There are several terms that should be defined before discussing

even aged forest management.
– The regulatory rotation age is the number of years between
final harvest cuts.
 This is the number of years that would be used in a cash
flow analysis.
– The cutting rotation age is the age of the timber stand when it
is cut.
 This is the number of years that would be used to
 Forest regulation

Determination of allowable cut

 The determination of the annual cutting rate has therefore a
fundamental importance for the future shape and development of
forests.
 The purpose of determining the annual cut is to maintain a sustained
yield and decide upon:
– the total volume of timber to be cut
– the kind, quality and size of timber to be harvested
– where to cut and in which sequence
 Forest regulation

 These decisions have to take the following considerations into

account:
– management objective
– market situation for the different products
– Silvicultural needs and constraints (regeneration methods, pests)
– logging problems

 Several methods for determining annual cut were developed

 Most of these methods fall into one of following two categories

 Forest regulation

1. Area control method: direct & simplest method of yield regulation

involves cutting equal areas of forest every year
Tells that how much area should be harvested
 Area to be harvested = Total Area (At) / Rotation age (R)

A=
 Advantages:
 It is easy to calculate & understand
 Area for harvest is readily identified
 It can readily produce regulated forest structure
 It suited to even-aged (plantation) management
 Forest regulation

 Disadvantages:
 Can cause fluctuation in harvest volume i.e. b/c only area is
controlled
 It must be combined with volume control for uneven-aged forests
 Forest regulation

2. Volume control method: requires cutting equal wood volume

annually
 Annual yield (Ya) = Vol. of actual growing stock (Va)/Rotation (R)
 How volume for the harvest (cut) is calculated?:
 There are many formulas that can be used to determine volume to
harvest:
 Yield based on growing stock only:
 Hundeshagen’s formula
 Von Mantel’s Formula
 French Method of 1883
 Forest regulation

 Yield based on increment only:

 Increment Method
 Yield based on both :
 Austrian Formula
 Hanzlik Formula
 Forest regulation

 Hundeshogen’s Formula: is based on growing stock/vol. only

 Vol. accumulated at the end of harvest is annual growth of the forest,

, where, Ya = actual yield or allowable cut

Ga = actual growing stock (to be measured)

Yr = yield in a fully stocked forest from yield table,

Gr=growing stock in fully stocked forest from yield table

E.g: 1yr--------------------------------------25yrs
Annual growth Volume
 Forest regulation

 Von mantel's formula: simplest volume control method

 In this method, allowable cut (C) =

Where, Ga = actual growing stock (m3)

R = rotation period
 It also assumes even-aged forest

Example: If R = 25 years , Ga = 1,860,250

Therefore, C = * 2 = 148,820m3
 Relationship b/n yield & growing stock for normal forest is assumed
to be straight line

 Forest regulation

 Austrian formula: combines increment with means of adjusting vol.

 Or attempts to adjust annual harvest to actual increment

 So, allowable cut = I + ,

Where, I = Annual increment - usually determined on basis of net PAI

Ga = Actual growing stock - present growing stock

Gr = Desired growing stock

a = Adjustment period in yrs

 An estimate of annual increment is made & also difference between the

actual & the desired growing stock is determined

 Then, harvest should be annual increment + annual adjustment of vol.

 Forest regulation

Regulation of un even aged forest

• There is a significant difference in the age of trees composing the forest
• Cutting cycle (C) and reserve growing stock are important concepts
• Reserve growing stock (G)
– is the growing stock in the forest that is reserved (uncut) to produce the
growth for future cuts (H).
• Conceptual regulation model
– a forest divided into a series of stands that are regularly harvested on
the cutting cycle
• The operational conceptualization of uneven-aged management is
dominated by the diameter distribution of a stand rather than its age
• The key decision variable is how many trees of particular sizes and species
to remove
• Conceptually regeneration in uneven aged stands is assumed to be
continuous
Forest regulation
 Forest regulation

• There are four important questions to be answered in regulating uneven-

aged forests.
– How much growing stock should be carried?
– What should be the diameter distribution on the stand?
– What should be the species composition of the stand?
– What should be the cutting cycle length?
• More trees in the lower diameter classes should be left to compensate
for mortality and cutting
• The species composition should balance management objectives and
other environmental requirements (regeneration, multiple objectives)
• Length of cutting cycle is affected by species light requirement and
growth rate, financial need
 Forest regulation

 The three basic decision parameters in uneven-aged management that

we will consider are
 the target diameter distribution,
 the cutting cycle, and
 individual tree harvesting decisions.
 The target diameter class distribution is often specified in terms of its
“Q factor,” the basal area, and the maximum diameter.
 The Q factor refers to the ratio of the number of trees in adjacent
diameter classes and determines the relative balance between smaller
trees and larger trees.
 Forest regulation

 In order for the target diameter class distribution to be sustainable, there

must always be a surplus of trees in each diameter class at the end of the
cutting cycle so that this surplus can be harvested, leaving the stand back at
the target diameter class distribution.
 This means that the ingrowth of smaller trees into a diameter class must
equal or exceed the outgrowth and mortality from the diameter class.
 This allows the stand to develop between cutting cycles without creating
any gaps in the diameter distribution.
 The stand density – as indicated by the stand basal area – must be low
enough to ensure adequate regeneration, yet high enough to maximize the
use of the site.
 Forest regulation

 The maximum diameter specifies the size at which trees become

mature and likely are no longer growing fast enough to justify their
use of growing space and the opportunity cost of not utilizing their
wood.
 Forest regulation

A wise forestry professional is one

who applies sustainability and
normality in the forest !!!

GOOD LUCK