CHAPTER # 02

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
ENGINE PARAMETERS
 TDC

S or L

BDC

r or l
Bore( B )
Bore The bore of a cylinder describes the measurement,
in millimeters or inches, of the inside diameter of the
cylinder. Diameter is the width across a cylindrical object.

Stroke Length ( S )
Stroke length of a piston describes the distance, in
millimeters or inches, a piston travels from either the top
of the cylinder (TDC) to the bottom of the cylinder (BDC),
or from the bottom of the cylinder back to the top.
It is given by the relation:
S = 2a

Where ‘a’ is the crank radius.

Average Piston Speed(UP)
Piston speed refers to the average or mean speed of the
piston as it moves up and down in the cylinder bore
during each crankshaft revolution. Since the piston
actually comes to a complete stop at the top of the stroke
(TDC) and at the bottom of the stroke (BDC), its speed
and acceleration at any given point is always changing.
The piston is always accelerating from or decelerating to
zero speed. The formula for mean piston speed yields an
average speed based on two times the stroke, S (up and
down for one revolution), times the engine speed, N (rpm)

Average Piston Speed = UP = 2SN

N is generally given in RPM (revolutions per minute), UP in
m/sec (ft/sec), and S in m or cm (ft or in).

Piston position(s)
The distance between the crank axis and wrist pin is given
by:
s = aCosθ + ( r2 – a2sin2θ )1/2
where
a = crank radius
r = connecting rod length
θ = crank angle, which is measured from the
cylinder centerline and is zero when the
piston is at TDC.
Instantaneous Piston Speed (UP)
When s is differentiated with respect to time, the
instantaneous piston speed is obtained:

UP = ds / dt
•The ratio of instantaneous piston speed divided by the
average piston speed can be written as

where
R=r/a
R is the ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius and
usually has a value of 3 to 4 for small engines, increasing
to 5 to 10 for the largest engines.

Displacement or Displacement Volume(Vd )

It is the volume displaced by the piston as it travels from

BDC to TDC:

Vd = VBDC – VTDC

Displacement volume can be given for one cylinder or for

the entire engine. For one cylinder,
Vd = (π / 4)B2S
For an engine with NC cylinders,

Vd = NC(π / 4)B2S

Where,
B = Cylinder bore
S = Stroke length
NC = number of engine cylinders

Note. Minimum cylinder volume occurs when the piston is

at TDC and is called the clearance volume VC. Therefore
we write

VC = VTDC
VBDC = VC + Vd
Compression Ratio ( rC )
The compression ratio is defined as the ratio of the total
cylinder volume ( VT ) to the clearance volume ( VC ) and
is written as

rC = VBDC / VTDC = VT / VC = ( VC + Vd ) / VC

Modern spark ignition (SI) engines have compression

ratios of 8 to 11, while compression ignition (CI) engines
have compression ratios in the range of 12 to 24.
Relation of Cylinder Volume with Crank Angle
The cylinder volume at any crank angle is given by the
relation
V = VC + (πB2/4)( r + a – s )
This can be written in nondimensional form by dividing by
VC,

V / VC = 1 + ½(rC – 1)[R + 1 – cosθ-√R2 – Sin2θ ]

Example Problem 2 -1
John’s automobile has a three liters SI V6 engine that operates
on a four stroke cycle at 3600 RPM. The compression ratio is
9.5, the length of the connecting rod is 16.6 cm, and the engine
is square(B = S). At this speed, combustion ends at 20O after
TDC.
Calculate:
1. cylinder bore and stroke
2. average piston speed
3. clearance volume of one cylinder
4. piston speed at the end of combustion
5. distance the piston has travelled from TDC at the end of
combustion
6. volume in the combustion chamber at the end of
combustion
WORK
Work is generated in combustion chamber of the cylinder of an
engine by the combustion of charge and is known as the output
of any heat engine. Gas pressure on the moving piston
generates the work in an IC engine cycle.
Mathematically
W = ∫ Fdx = ∫PAPdx
where
P = pressure in combustion chamber
AP = area against which the pressure acts
and
APdx = dV
dV is the differential volume displaced by the piston as it travels
a distance dx, so the work done can be written as

W = ∫ PdV
As engines are multi cylinders, therefore it is convenient to
analyze engine cycles per unit mass of gas ‘m’ within the
cylinder. Hence V is replaced with specific volume v and work is
replaced with specific work w :
w = W/m, v = V/m

w = ∫Pdv

INDICATED WORK
The work done by the piston in the combustion chamber is
called indicated work (wi).
BRAKE WORK
Work available at crankshaft is called brake work(wb) which is
always less than indicated work.
This lost work is used to overcome mechanical friction and to run
oil pump, supercharger, air conditioner compressor, alternator,
etc. Therefore

wb = wi - wf
where
wi = indicated specific work generated
inside combustion chamber
wf = specific work lost due to friction and
parasitic loads

• Units of specific work will be kJ / kg or BTU / lbm

 wb = wi - wf

The upper loop of the engine cycle consists of the compression

and power strokes where output work is generated and is called
the gross indicated work. The lower loop, which includes the
intake and exhaust strokes, is called pump work and absorbs
work from the engine. Net indicated work is

wnet = wgross+ wpump

Mechanical Efficiency ( ηm )
The ratio of the brake work at the crankshaft to indicated work in
the combustion chamber is defined as the mechanical efficiency
of an engine.

η m = wb / wi = Wb / W i

MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (mep)

Pressure in the cylinder of an engine is continuously changing
during the cycle, therefore an average value of this pressure is
used in calculations which is known as the mean effective
pressure (mep) and it is defined mathematically by the relation

w = (mep) Δv
or
mep = w / Δv = W / Vd
where
W = work of one cycle
w = specific work of one cycle
Vd = displacement volume
Mean effective pressure is a good parameter for comparing
engines irrespective of size and speed.
Various mean effective pressure can be defined using different
work terms in the equation, mep = w / Δv = W / Vd.
BRAKE MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (bmep)

If brake work is used, brake mean effective pressure is

obtained
bmep = wb / Δv = Wb / Vd
INDICATED MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (imep)
If indicated work is used, indicated mean effective pressure is
obtained.

imep = wi / Δv = Wi / Vd

FRICTION MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (fmep)

Friction mean effective pressure is given by the relation
fmep = wf / Δv = Wf / Vd
PUMP MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (pmep)

It is given by the relation

pmep = wpump / Δv
The following equations relate some of the previous definitions:

nmep = gmep + pmep

bmep = nmep – fmep

bmep = ηmimep

bmep = imep – fmep

where
nmep = net mean effective pressure
ηm = mechanical efficiency of the engine
TORQUE
Torque is defined as force acting at a moment distance and its
units are Nm of lbf-ft. It is used to measure the engine’s ability to
do work. It is related to work by following relation:

2 π τ = Wb = (bmep)Vd / n
or
τ = (bmep)Vd / 2 π n
where
Wb = brake work of one revolution
Vd = displacement volume
n = number of revolutions per
cycle
TORQUE (Contd)
⇒For two stroke cycle engine with one cycle for each revolution,

2 π τ = Wb = (bmep)Vd
or
τ = (bmep)Vd/2 π

⇒ For four stroke cycle engine that takes two revolutions per

cycle,
τ = (bmep)Vd/4 π
POWER
It is defined as the rate of work of the engine. If n = number of
revolutions per cycle and N = engine speed, then
•
W = WN / n
•W = 2 π N τ [ as W = 2 π τ ]
•
W = (1/2n)(mep)A UP P

•
⇒ W = (mep)APUP / 4 for 4 stroke cycle
•
⇒ W = (mep)APUP / 2 for 2 stroke cycle
where
W = work per cycle
AP = piston face area of all pistons
UP = average piston speed
POWER (Contd)
Depending upon which definition of work or mep is used in
above equations, power can be defined as brake power, net
indicated power, gross indicated power and friction power. Also,
•W = ηm
•
W
b i

• • •
(Wi)net = (Wi)gross − (Wi)pump
• • •
Wb = W i − Wf

⇒ Power is normally measured in kW, but horsepower(hp)

is still common:

1 hp = 0.7457 kW = 2545 BTU/hr = 550 ft-lbf/sec

1 kW = 1.341 hp
POWER (Contd)
Other ways which are sometimes used to classify engines are as
follows:
•
specific power SP = Wb / AP
•
output per displacement OPD = W b / Vd
•
specific volume SV = Vd / Wb •
Specific weight SW = (engine weight) / Wb
where •

Wb = brake power

AP = piston face area of all pistons

Vd = displacement volume
Example Problem 2 -2
The engine in Example Problem 2-1 is connected to a
dynamometer which gives a brake output torque reading of
205 N-m at 3600 RPM. At this speed air enters the cylinders at
85 kPa and 60oC, and the mechanical efficiency of the engine
is 85%.
Calculate:
1. brake power
2. indicated power
3. brake mean effective pressure
4. indicated mean effective pressure
5. friction mean effective pressure
6. power lost to friction
7. brake work per unit mass of gas in the cylinder
8. brake specific power
9. brake output per displacement
10. engine specific volume
DYNAMOMETERS
The power and torque of an engine are measured by an
apparatus known as dynamometers. They do this by using
various methods to absorb the energy output of the engine.
These dynamometers are of many types:

1. Prony Brake Dynamometers

These are the simplest dynamometers which absorb energy in
a mechanical friction brake(Prony brake). These are not as
flexible and accurate as others at higher energy levels.

2. Fluid or haydraulic Dynamometers

They absorb engine energy in water or oil pumped through
orifices or dissipated with various losses in a rotor – stator
combination. Large amounts of energy can be absorbed in this
manner for largest engines.
DYNAMOMETERS (Contd)
3. Eddy current Dynamometers
They use a disk, driven by the engine being tested, rotating in
a magnetic field or controlled strength. The rotating disk acts
as an electrical conductor cutting the lines of magnetic flux and
producing eddy currents in the disk. With no external circuit,
the energy from the induced currents is absorbed in the disk.

4. Electric Dynamometers
These are the best types of dynamometers. They absorb
energy with electrical output from a connected generator. In
addition to having an accurate way of measuring the energy
absorbed, the load is easily varied by changing the amount of
resistance in the circuit connected to the generator output.
Many electric dynamometers can also be operated in reverse,
with the generator used as a motor to drive an unfired engine.
This allows the engine to be tested for mechanical friction
losses and air pumping losses, quantities that are hard to
measure on a running fired engine.
Example Problem 2 -3
When a three-cylinder, four-stroke cycle, SI engine,
operating at 4000 RPM is connected to an eddy current
dynamometer, 70.4 kW of power is dissipated by the
dynamometer. The engine has a total displacement volume of
2.4 liters and mechanical efficiency of 82% at 4000 RPM.
Because of heat and mechanical losses, the dynamometer has
an efficiency of 93%. ηdyno = (power recorded by
dynamometer)/(actual power from engine).
Calculate:
1. Power lost to friction in engine
2. Brake mean effective pressure
3. Engine torque at 4000 RPM
4. Engine specific volume
Problem 2 .2
A four – cylinders, two – stroke cycle diesel engine with 10.9
cm bore and 12.6 cm stroke produces 88 kW of brake power at
2000 RPM. Compression ratio is rC = 18:1.
Calculate:
(a) Engine displacement. [cm3, L]
(b) Brake mean effective pressure. [kPa]
(c) Torque.[Nm]
(d) Clearance volume of one cylinder.[cm3]
Problem 2 .6
A five – cylinders, 3.5 liter SI engine operates on a four-stroke
cycle at 2500 RPM. At this condition, the mechanical efficiency
of the engine is 62% and 1000 J of indicated work are
produced each cycle in each cylinder.
Calculate:
(a) Indicated mean effective pressure. [ kPa]
(b) Brake mean effective pressure. [kPa]
(c) Friction mean effective pressure. [kPa]
(d) Brake power in kW and hp.
(e) Torque.[Nm]
Problem 2 .7
The engine operating at the conditions in Problem 2.6 is
square, with S = B.
Calculate:
(a) Specific power. [kW/cm2]
(b) Output per displacement. [kW/cm3]
(c) Specific volume. [cm3/kW]
(d) Power lost to friction in kW and hp.
AIR - FUEL RATIO AND FUEL - AIR RATIO
Energy input to an engine Qin comes from combustion of a
hydrocarbon fuel. Air is used to supply oxygen needed for this
chemical reaction. Proper relative amounts of air(oxygen) and
fuel are required for combustion reaction to occur.
Air–fuel ratio (AF) and fuel–air ratio(FA) are parameters
to describe the mixture ratio. We have
• •
AF = ma / mf = ma / mf
• •
FA = mf / ma = mf / ma = 1/AF
where •
ma = mass of air, and m• a = mass flow rate of air
mf = mass of fuel, and mf = mass flow rate of fuel
EQUIVALENCE RATIO (Ф)
It is defined as the actual ratio of fuel-air to ideal or
stoichiometric fuel-air:
Ф = (FA)act /(FA)stoich = (AF)Stoich / (AF)act
The ideal or stoichiometric AF for many gasoline – type
hydrocarbon fuels is very close to 15:1, with combustion possible
for values in the range of 6 to 25. AF less than 6 is too rich to
sustain combustion and AF greater than 25 is too lean.
⇒ A vehicle is operated with rich mixture when accelerating or
starting cold. Whereas at light load, vehicles are often operated
lean to save fuel and after doing this it is made sure to have a
EQUIVALENCE RATIO (Ф) Contd.
small fuel rich zone around the sparkplug to assure good ignition.
⇒ Normal gasoline-fueled engines usually have AF input in the
range of 12 to 18 depending on operating conditions at the time of
accelerating, cruising, starting, etc. SI lean-burn engines can have AF as
high as 25 to 40, but need special intake and mixing for proper ignition.
⇒ CI engines typically have AF input in the range of 18 to 70, which
appears to be outside the limits within which combustion is possible.
Combustion occurs because the cylinder of a CI engine, unlike an SI
engine, has a very non homogeneous air-fuel mixture with reaction only
in those regions in which a combustible mixture exists, other regions
being too rich or too lean.
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
Specific fuel consumption is defined as
• •
sfc = mf / W
where
•
mf = rate of fuel flow into engine
•
W = engine power
BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

Brake power gives the brake specific

• fuel consumption:
•
⇒ bsfc = mf / Wb
BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
⇒ Indicated power gives indicated specific fuel consumption:
• •
isfc = mf / W
⇒ It follows that
• • • • • •
ηm = Wb / Wi = ( mf / Wi ) / ( mf / Wb ) = isfc / bsfc

where
ηm = mechanical efficiency of the engine
ENGINE EFFICIENCIES
⇒ Combustion process of an IC engine is very brief.
⇒ All fuel molecules do not find oxygen molecules for
combustion.
⇒ Local temperature may not favor a reaction.
Consequently, a small fraction of fuel does not react and exits
with the exhaust flow.
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY
It is defined to account for the fraction of fuel that burns.
Typical values vary from 0.95 to 0.98 when an engine is
operating properly.
For one engine cycle in one cylinder, the heat added is

Q in = mfQHVηC
For steady state,
•
Q in = mfQHVηC

THERMAL EFFICIENCY

• • • •
It is defined as

ηt = W / Q in = W / Q in = W / mfQHVηC = ηf / ηc

Where,
 W = work of one cycle

W = power
•

mf = mass of fuel for one cycle

mf = mass flow rate of fuel

QHV = heating value of fuel

ηf = fuel conversion efficiency

Thermal efficiency is also given as indicated or brake,

depending on which indicated power is used. Engine’s
mechanical efficiency is given by:
Indicated thermal efficiency varies between the range of 40%
to 50%, and brake thermal efficiency usually about 30%. Some
large slow CI engines can have brake thermal efficiencies
greater than 50%.

FUEL CONVERSION EFFICIENCY

Fuel conversion efficiency is defined as
• •
ηf = W / m Qf HV = W / mfQHV

ηf = 1 / (sfc)QHV
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
The power output of an IC engine depends directly upon the
amount of charge which can be induced into the cylinder. This
is referred to as the breathing capacity of the engine and is
expressed quantitatively by the volumetric efficiency and for IC
engine it is defined as the ratio of the volume of air induced,
measured at the free conditions to the displacement volume of
the cylinder,
ηV = V / Vd = ma /ρa Vd
Where
ma = mass of air into the engine’s cylinder for one cycle
ρ = air density evaluated at atmospheric conditions
outside the engine
Example Problem 2 - 4

The engine in Example Problem 2 – 2 is running with an air –

fuel ratio AF = 15, a fuel heating value of 44,000 kJ/kg, and a
combustion efficiency of 97%.
Calculate:
1. rate of fuel flow into engine
2. brake thermal efficiency
3. indicated thermal efficiency
4. volumetric efficiency
5. brake specific fuel consumption
EMISSIONS
Emissions from the automobiles were identified during 1950s as
major source to urban air pollution. Vehicles powered by internal
combustion engines operating on conventional petroleum fuels,
natural gas and other liquid fuels emit into atmosphere:
(a). Carbon monoxide (CO)
(b). Nitrogen oxides (NOx )
(c). Unburned hydrocarbons (HC)
(d). Particulate matter (PM) – solid particulates.
⇒These are regarded as the main pollutants.
Two common method to measure the amount of these pollutants
are:
1. Specific emissions (SE) – Units: gm/kW-hr
2. Emissions index (EI) – Units: emissions flow per fuel
flow[ gm/sec ] / [ kg/sec ]
EMISSIONS (Contd)
Specific Emissions(SE):

where
= flow rate of emissions in gm / hr

= brake power
EMISSIONS (Contd)
Emissions Index(EI):
Example Problem 2 - 5

A 12 cylinder, two-stroke cycle CI engine produces 2440 kW

of brake power at 550 RPM using stoichiometric light diesel
fuel. The engine has bore of 24 cm, stroke of 32 cm,
volumetric efficiency of 97%, mechanical efficiency of 88%.
Calculate:
1. mass flow rate of fuel into engine
2. brake specific fuel consumption
3. indicated specific fuel consumption
4. specific emissions of hydrocarbons due to unburned fuel
5. emission index of hydrocarbons due to unburned fuel
Problem 2 . 10

A 1500 cm3, four-stroke cycle, four-cylinder CI engine

produces 48 kW of brake power. Volumetric efficiency is 0.92
and air fuel ratio AF = 21:1.
Calculate:
(a) Rate of air flow into engine. [kg/sec]
(b) Brake specific fuel consumption. [gm/kW-hr]
(c) Mass rate of exhaust flow. [kg/hr]
(d) Brake output per displacement. [kW/L]