SOIL MECHANICS (CE-213)

Course Instructor
Engr. Kashif Riaz

Soil Classification

• ground

1
Soil Classification
Soil classification is the arrangement of soils into different groups such that the soils in a particular group
have similar Behaviour. As there is a wide variety of soils covering earth, it is desirable to systematize or
classify the soils into broad groups of similar Behaviour. It is more convenient to study the behaviour of
groups than that of individual soils.
For a soil classification system to be useful to the geotechnical engineers, it should have the following
three basic requirements:
1. It should have a limited number of groups.
2. It should be based on the engineering properties which are most relevant for the purpose for which
the classification has been made.
3. It should be simple and should use the terms which are easily understood.
A soil is classified according to index properties, such as particle size and plasticity characteristics.

2
 Particle Size Classification

The size of individual particles has an important influence on the behaviour of soils. It is not surprising
that the first classification of soils was based on the particle size. It is a general practice to classify the
soils into four broad groups, namely, gravel, sand, silt size and clay size. Some of the classification
system based on particle size alone are discussed below.
(1) MIT System
MIT system of classification of soils was developed by Prof. G. Gilboy at Massachusettes Institute of
Technology in USA. In this system, the soil is divided into four groups.
1. Gravel, particle size greater than 2 mm.
2. Sand, particle size between 0.06 mm to 2.0 mm
3. Silt size, particle size between 0.002 mm to 0.06 mm
4. Clay size, particle size smaller than 0.002 mm (2μ).

3
 (1) MIT System
The soils in sand and silt-size-range are further subdivided into three categories:
• Coarse (C), Medium (M) and Fine (F), as shown in the figure.
It may be noted that MIT system uses only two integers 2 and 6, and is easy to remember.

Clay Silt (size) Sand Gravel

(size)
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium Coarse

0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2.0 mm

4
 International Classification )2(
System
The International Classification System was proposed for general use at the International Soils
Congress held as Washington in 1927. This classification system was known as the Swedish
classification system before it was adopted as International system. However, the system was
not adopted by the United States. In this system, in addition to sand, silt, and clay, a term mo
has been used for soil particles in the size range between sand and silt.

Ultra Clay Silt Mo Sand Gravel

Clay
F C F C F C F M C VC

0.2 μ 0.6 μ 2 μ 0.006 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0

5
 U.S. Bureau of Soils Classification )3(
This is one of the earliest classification systems developed in 1895 by U.S. Bureau of Soils In
this system, the soils below the size 0.005 mm are classified as clay size in contrast to 0.002
mm size in other systems. The soils between 0.005 mm and 0.05 mm size are classified as silt
size. Sandy soils between the size 0.05 mm and 1.0 mm are subdivided into four categories as
very fine, fine, medium and coarse sands. Fine gravels are in the size range of 1.0 to 2.0mm.

Clay Silt Sand Fine Gravel

(size) (size) Very Fine Medium Coarse Gravel
Fine

0.005 0.05 0.10 0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0

6
 AASHTO Classification System
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official (AASHTO) Classification system is
useful for classifying soils for highways. The analysis and the plasticity particle size analysis
characteristics are required to classify a soil.
The classification system is a complete system which classifies both coarse-grained and fine-grained
soits In this system, the soils are divided into 7 types, designated as 4-1 to A-7.
The soils A-1 and A-7 are further subdivided into two. categories, and the soil A-2, into four chlegories,
as shown in Table.
• The soil with the lowest number, A-1, is the most suitable as a highway material or subgrade. In
general, the lower is the number of soil, the more suitable is the soil.
• For example, the soil A-4 is better than the soil A-5. In Table, the column for soil A-3 is to the left
of the column for soil A-2. This arrangement is only to determine the classification of the soil. This
does not indicate that soil A-3 is more suitable for highways than A-2 soil.

7
 AASHTO Classification System
Fine-grained soils are further rated for their suitability for highways by the Group index (GI),
determine by
GI = (F - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(wl - 40)] + 0.01(F - 15) (Ip - 10)
F = percentage by mass passing American Sieve no. 200 (size 0.075 mm), expressed whole number.
wl = liquid limit (%) expressed as a whole number.
Ip = plasticity index (%), expressed as a whole number.
• While calculating GI from the above equation, if any term in the parentheses becomes negative,
it is dropped, and not given a negative value.
• The maximum values of (F-35) and (F-15) are taken as 40 and that of (w l -40) and (Ip -10) as 20.
• The group index is rounded off to the nearest whole number. If the computed value is negative,
the group index is reported as zero.
• The smaller the value of the group index, the better is the soil in that category.
• A group index of zero indicates a good subgrade, whereas a group index of 20 or greater shows
a very poor subgrade.
• The group index must be mentioned even when it is zero to indicate that the soil has been
classified as per AASHTO system. 8
9
 Passing No.200
86%
Example LL=70, PI=32
LL-30=40 > PI=32
Passing No.200 GI (F200  35)0.2  0.005(LL  40)
86%
LL=70, PI=32  0.01(F200  15)( PI  10)
LL-30=40 > PI=32 33.47 33 Round off A-7-
5(33)

10 10
 Unified Soil Classification System
The Unified Soil Classification System (USC) was first developed by Casagrande in 1948. and later, in
1952, was modified by the Bureau of Reclamation and the Corps of Engineers of the United States of
America. The system has also been adopted by American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM). The
system is the most popular system for use in all types of engineering problems involving soils. The
various symbols used are given in table Symbols Description
Primary G Gravel
The system uses both the particle size analysis and plasticity
S Sand
characteristics of soils, like AASHTO system. In this system, the
M Silt (Symbol M
soils are classified into 15 groups obtained from the

Coarse-grained Soils C
)'Swedish word 'mo
Clay
• If more than 50% of the soil is retained on No. 200 (0.075 mm) O
Organic
Pt
sieve, it is designated as coarse-grained soil. Peat
• There are 8 groups of coarse-grained soils. Secondary W Well-graded
P Poorly graded
Fine-grained soils
M Non-plastic fines
• If more than 50% of the soil passes No. 200 sieve, it is called C Plastic fines
fine-grained soil. L Low Plasticity

• There are 6 groups of fine-grained soils. H High plasticity

11
Coarse-grained Soils
• The coarse-grained soils are designated as gravel (G) if 50% or more of coarse fraction (plus 0.075
mm) is retained on No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve; otherwise, it is termed sand (S).
• If the coarse-grained soils contains less than 5% fines and are well-graded (W), they are given the
symbols GW and SW, and if poorly graded (P), symbols GP and SP. The criteria for well-grading
are given in table.
• If the coarse-grained soils contain more than 12% fines, these are designated as GM, GC, SM or
SC, as per criteria given.
• If the percentage of fines is between 5 to 12% dual symbols such as GW-GM, SP-SM, are used.

Fine-grained Soils
Fine-grained soils are further divided into two types:
(1) Soils of low compressibility (L)
If the liquid limit is 50% or less. These are given the symbols ML, CL and OL.
(2) Soils of high compressibility (H)
If the liquid limit is more than 50%. These are given the symbols MH, CH and OH
12
The exact type of the soil is determined from the plasticity chart. The A-line has the equation
Ip = 0.73 (wt - 20). It separates the clays from silts. When the plasticity index and the liquid limit plot in
the hatched portion of the plasticity chart, the soil is given double symbol CL- ML.

The inorganic soil ML and MH and the organic soils OL, OH plot in the same zones of the plasticity
chart. The distinction between the inorganic and organic soils is made by oven-drying. If oven drying
decreases the liquid limit by 30% or more, the soil is classified organic (OL or OH); otherwise, inorganic
(ML or MH)

Highly Organic Soils

Highly organic soils are identified by visual inspection. These soils are term peat (p t).

13
 Major Division Group Symbols Typical names Classification criteria

Coarse-Grained Gravel [50% or GW Well graded Cu > 4

(c)5 to 12% passing No. 200 use of dual symbols as GW-GM, SP-
Soils. [More than more of coarse gravels
Clean Gravels Cc = 1 to 3
50% retained on No. fraction retained
200 sieve (0.075 on No. 4 sieve GP Poorly graded Not meeting both criteria for
gravels GW

(b) more than 12% passing No. 200, GM, GC, SM, SC
mm)] (4.75 mm)]

(a) Less than 5% passing No. 200, GW, GP, SW, SP

Gravels with fines GM Silty gravels Atterberg Limits Atterberg
below A-line or Limits in
plasticity index hatched area
less than 4 GM-GC
GC Clayey gravels Atterberg Limits

Percentage of fines
above A-line and
plasticity index
greater than 7

SC.
Gravel [50% or Clean Sands SW Well-graded Cu > 6
more of coarse sands
Cc = 1 to 3
fraction retained
on No. 4 sieve SP Poorly graded Not meeting both criteria for
(4.75 mm)] sands SW
Sands with fines SM Silty sands Atterberg Limits Atterberg
below A-line or Limits in
plasticity index hatched area
less than 4 SM-SC
SC Clayey sands Atterberg Limits above
A-line and plasticity
index greater than 7
Fine grained Silts and ML Inorganic silts of low
soils [50% or clays Liquid plasticity
more passing No. Limit 50% or
200 sieve (0.075 less
mm)] CL Inorganic clays of low to
medium plasticity

OL Organic silts of low plasticity

Silts and ΜΗ Inorganic silts of high

clays Liquid plasticity
Limit greater
than 50% Plasticity chart(USC)
CH Inorganic clays of high
plasticity

OH Organic clays of medium of

high plasticity

Table Unified soil classification system

Example Passing No.200 sieve 30 % LL= 33
Passing No.4 sieve 70 % PI= 12

Passing No.200 sieve 30 %

Passing No.4 sieve 70 %

LL= 33
PI= 12
PI= 0.73(LL-20), A-line
PI=0.73(33-20)=9.49

SC
(15% gravel)
Clayey sand with Highly
gravel
16
(Santamarina et al.,
2001)
 Comparison of AASHTO and USCS systems
• AASHTO system is for finding out the suitability or otherwise of soils as subgrade for highways
only.
• USC system is for determining the suitability of soils for general use. Both the systems, however,
have the same basis.
• They classify the soils according to the particle size analysis and the plasticity characteristics. Both
the systems divide the soils into two maior categories, namely, course-grained and fine-grained soil.
The following differences between the two systems are worth mentioning.
1. According to AASHTO system, a soil is termed fine-grained if more than 35% passes No. 200 (0.075
mm) sieve, whereas in the USC system, if more than 50% passes that sieve. In this respect, the
AASHTO system is somewhat better because the soil behaves as fine-grained when the percentage of
fines is 35%, and the limit of 50% in USC system is somewhat higher.
2. In AASHTO system, sieve No. 10 (2.0 mm size) is used to divide the soil into gravel and sand,
whereas in USC system, sieve No. 4(4.75 mm size) is used.
3. In USC system, the gravelly and sandy soils are clearly separated, whereas in AASHTO system, clear
demarcation is not done. The soil A-2 in the latter system contains a large variety of soils. 17
 Comparison of AASHTO and USCS systems
4. Symbols used in USC system are more descriptive and are more easily remembered than those in
AASHTO system.
5. Organic soils are also classified as OL and OH and as peat (P) if highly organic in USC system. In
AASHTO, there is no place for organic soils.
6. USC system is more convenient to use than the AASHTO system.
• Approximate Equivalence Between AASHTO System USC system (most probable)
AASHTO and USC System. A-1-a GW, GP
• If the soil has been classified according A-1-b SW, SM, GM, SP
to one system, its classification A-2-4 GM, SM
according to the other can be A-2-5 GM, SM
determined. A-2-6 GC, SC
• However, the equivalence is only A-2-7 GM, GC, SM, SC
approximate. A-3 SP
• For exact classification, the A-4 ML, OL, MH, OH
corresponding procedure should be
A-5 MH, OH, ML, OH
used.
A-6 CL
A-7-5 OH, MH, CL, OL 18
 Boundary Classifications
Sometimes, it is not possible to classify a soil into any one of 18 groups discussed above. A soil may
possess characteristics of two groups, either in particle size distribution or in plasticity. For such cases,
boundary classifications occur, and dual symbols are used.
(a) Boundary Classification for Coarse-grained Soils
The following boundary classification can occur:
1. Boundary classifications within gravel group or sand group can occur.The following classification are
common.
GW - GP, GM - GC, GW - GM, GW - GC, GP – GM, SW - SP, SM - SC, SW - SM, SW - SC, SP - SM
While giving dual symbols, first write a coarser soil then a finer soil.
2. Boundary classification can occur between the gravel and sand groups such as
GW - SW, GP - SP, GM - SM, and GC – SC
The rule for correct classification is to favour the non-plastic classification. For example, a gravel with
10% fines, Cu = 20 and Cc = 2.0 and Ip = 6 will be classified as GW - GM, and not GW - GC.
19
 Boundary Classifications

(b) Boundary Classification for Fine-grained Soils.

1. Within the same compressibility subdivision, such as ML - CL, ML - OL, CL - OL; CI - MI, MI -
OI, CI - OI; MH - CH, MH - OH; CH-OH.
First write a coarser soil when there is a choice and then a finer soil.
2. Between low and medium compressibility, such as ML - MI, CL - CI, OL - OI
3. Between medium and high compressibility ML - MH, CI - CH, OI – OH

(c) Boundary Classification between Coarse-grained and Fine-grained Soils.

Boundary classification can occur between a coarse-grained soil and a fine-grained soil, such as SM-
ML, SC-CL

20
 Field Identification of Soils
The soils can be identified in the field by conducting the following simple tests.
The sample is first spread on a flat surface. If more than 50% of the particles are visible to the naked eye
(unaided eye), the soil is coarse-grained; otherwise, it is fine grained. The fine-grained particles are
smaller than 75µ size and are not visible to unaided eye. The fraction of soil smaller than 75µ size, that is,
the clay and silt fraction, is referred to as fines.
(1) Coarse-grained Soils
If the soil is coarse-grained, it is further identified by estimating the percentage of (a) gravel size particles
(4.75 mm to 80 mm), (b) sand size particles, (75µ to 4.75 mm) and (c) silts and clay size particles
(smaller than 75µ size). Gravel particles are larger than 4.75 mm size and can be identified visually.

If the percentage of gravel is greater than that of sand, the soil is a gravel; otherwise, it is sand. Gravels
and sands are further classified as clean if they contain fines less than 5% and as dirty if they contain fines
more than 12%. Gravels and sands containing 5 to 12% fines are given boundary classification.

21
Field Identification of Soils
(2) Fine-grained Soils
If the soil is fine-grained, the following tests are conducted for identification on the fraction of the soil
finer than the 425-micron IS sieve to differentiate silt from clay.
(a) Dilatancy (reaction to shaking) test
A small pat of moist soil of about 5 ml in volume is prepared. Water is added to make the soil soft but
not sticky. The pat is placed in the open palm of one-hand and shaken horizontally, striking against the
other hand several times during shaking. If the soil gives a positive reaction, the water appears on its
surface which changes to a lively consistency and appears glossy. When the pat is squeezed between
the fingers, water and gloss disappear from the surface. It becomes stiff and ultimately crumbles.
The rapidity with which water appears on the surface during shaking and disappears during squeezing
is used in the identification of fine-grained soils. The larger the size of the particles, the quicker is the
reaction. The reaction is called quick if water appears and disappears quickly. The reaction is termed
slow if water appears and disappears slowly. For no reaction, the water does not appear at the surface.

22
Field Identification of Soils

(b) Toughness Test

The pat used in the dilatancy test is dried by working and remoulding until it has the consistency of
putty. The time required to dry the pat depends upon the plasticity of the soil.
The pat is rolled on a smooth surface or between the palms into a threads of about 3 mm in diameter.
The thread is folded and re- rolled to reduce the water is soil, due to evaporation by heat of hand,
until the 3 mm diameter thread just crumbles. The water content at that stage is equal to the plastic
limit and the resistance to moulding at that stage is called the toughness.
After the thread crumbles, the pieces of the sample are lumped together and subjected to kneading
until the lump also crumbles. The tougher the thread at the plastic limit and the stiffer the kneaded
lump just before it crumbles, the higher is the toughness of the soil. The toughness is low if the thread
is weak, and the soil mass cannot be lumped together when drier than plastic limit. The toughness is
high when the lump can be moulded drier than plastic limit and high pressure is required to roll the
thread. The toughness depends upon the potency of the colloidal clay.

23
Field Identification of Soils
(c) Dry Strength Test
The pat of the soil is completely dried by air drying ,sun drying or by oven drying. The dry strength
is determined by breaking the dried pat and crumbling it between fingers. The dry strength is a
measure of plasticity of the soil. The dry strength depends upon the colloidal fraction of the soil. The
strength is termed high if the dried pat cannot be powdered at all; medium, if considerable pressure
is required; and low, if the dry pat can be easily powdered.
Test ML CL OL MI CI ΟΙ MH CH OH
Dilatancy )a( Quick None to Slow Quick None Slow Slow to None None to
very slow to none very slow
slow
Toughness )b( None Medium Low None Medium Low Low to High Low to
medium medium

Dry strength )c( None Medium Low Low Medium Low to Low to High to Medium
of low to high medium medium very to high
high
Field Identification Tests
24
 General Characteristics of Soils of Different Groups

General characteristics of the soils of various groups as classified by ISC system and USC system are
given in table. The information given in the table should be considered as a rough guidance about the
engineering properties of soils. For complete information, the tests should be conducted and the
engineering properties determined.

25
 General Characteristics of Soils of Different Groups
Soil Group Permeability Compressibility Shear Strength Workability
(a) Gravels
GW Pervious Negligible Excellent Excellent
GP Very pervious Negligible Good Good
GM Semi-pervious to Negligible Good Good
impervious
GC Impervious Very low Good to fair Good

(b) Sands
SW Pervious Negligible Excellent Excellent
SP Pervious Very low Good Fair
SM Semi-pervious to Low Good Fair
impervious
SC Impervious low Good to fair Good
 General Characteristics of Soils of Different Groups
Soil Group Permeability Compressibility Shear Strength Workability
(c) Low & medium
Plasticity silt &
clays
ML, MI Semi-pervious to Medium Fair Fair
impervious
CL, CI Impervious Medium Fair Good to fair
OL, OI Semi-pervious to Medium Fair Fair
impervious
(d) High-plasticity
silts &Clays
MH Semi-pervious to High Fair to poor Poor
impervious
CH Impervious High Poor Poor
OH Impervious High Poor Poor
 Examples
Example 1.
A sample of soil was tested in a laboratory, and the following observations were recorded: Classify
the soil according to AASHTO system.
Liquid Limit= 45%, Plastic Limit= 16%
.U.S. Sieve No No. 4 No. 10 No. 40 (0.425 No. 200 (0.075
)mm 2.0( mm) mm)

Percentage Passing 100 91.5 80,0 60.0

Solution.
Plasticity Index = 45 - 16 = 29%
Referring to Table, and proceeding from the extreme left column to right, the first column in which
the properties fit is A-7.

28
To ascertain whether the soil is A-7-5 or A-7-6, the value of (w l - 30) is required. In this case,
wl -30 = 45-30 = 15%
As Ip > (wt - 30) , the soil A-7-6.
From Eq, taking F = 60
Group Index = (F - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(wl - 40)] + 0.01(F - 15) (Ip -10)
or GI = (60 - 35)[0.2+0.005*5)]+0.01(40)(19)
= 13.3, say 13.
The soil is classified as A-7-6 (13).

29
 Example 2
Classify the soils A and B, with the properties as shown below, according to USC system.
Soil )%( Wl )%( Ip passing No. 4 % passing No. %
sieve 200 sieve
A 45 29 100 59
B 55 15 100 85
Solution.
(a) Soil A. As more than 50% passes No. 200 sieve, the soil is fine-grained. As wl, is less than 50%,
the soil is of low plasticity. The Atterberg limits plot above the A-line.
The soil is classified as CL.
(b) Soil B. The soil is fine-grained. As the liquid limit is greater than 50%, the soil is of high
compressibility. The Atterberg limits plot below A-line. It can be either MH or OH. If the soil is OH,
its liquid limit will decrease considerably on oven-drying.

30
 Assignment
Numerical 1
Atterberg limit tests were carried out on a soil sample, with the following results:
Plastic limit = 25%. Liquid limit = 40%;
Classify the soil according to Unified Classification system. [Ans.
CL;CI]

Numerical 2
The following results were obtained from the classification tests of a soil.
Percentage passing 75μ sieve = 40%
Plastic Limit 15% Liquid limit 35%;
Calculate the group index of the soil and classify it according to AASHTO system.
[Ans.4;-6(4)]

31