Chapter 2: Ethics

What is Ethics?

Ethics is a study of right and wrong in human conduct.

Ethics help us not only in distinguishing between right

and wrong, but also in knowing why and on what grounds
our judgment of human actions is justified.

Ethics, therefore, is a field of inquiry whose subject is

human actions, collectively called human conduct, which
are performed consciously, wilfully, and for which one
can be held responsible.
The purpose of ethics is to interpret human
conduct, acknowledging and distinguishing
between right and wrong.

One’s reputation is for being the kind of person

who will consistently behave well, but good
character is by no means our only concern with
regard to what people should do.

Nowadays, “ethics” seems to be an inclusive term

for concerns also referred to by “morality,”
“value,” and “justice.”
Why is it important that we treat an issue as an
ethical issue?

The basic idea is that ethical problems arise

because they involve conflicts between different
interests that cannot be resolved on the level of
interests alone.
Law and Ethics

What is the connection between law and ethics?

Ethics precedes law in the sense that, ethical principles help
determine whether or not we should pass specific laws.
Some laws enforce ethical rules (e.g., against murder and
theft).
By definition, we are ethically obligated to obey such laws—
not because they are laws, but because the laws implement the
obligations and prohibitions of ethical rules.
Ethics fills the gap between the time when technology creates
new problems and the time when legislatures pass reasonable
laws.
Just because an activity is defined as legal does not
mean that it is ethical (see Figure 2.1).

Figure 2: Legal versus ethical

Candidate Ethical Principles

•Do unto others as you would have them do unto you (the Golden
Rule).
•If an action is not right for everyone to take, it is not right for
anyone (Immanuel Kant’s categorical imperative).
•If an action cannot be taken repeatedly, it is not right to take at
all. This is the slippery slope rule.
•Take the action that achieves the higher or greater value
(utilitarian principle).
•Take the action that produces the least harm or the least
potential cost (risk aversion principle).
•Assume that virtually all tangible and intangible objects are
owned by someone else unless there is a specific declaration
otherwise. (This is the ethical no-free-lunch rule).
Ethical Theories
For centuries, in different societies, human actions have been judged
good or bad, right or wrong, based on theories or systems of justice
developed, tested, revised, and debated by philosophers and/or
elders in that society.
Consequentialism
In consequentialism ethical theory, human actions are judged good
or bad, right or wrong, depending on the results of such actions.
There are three commonly discussed types of consequentialism
theory:
•Egoism: This theory puts an individual’s interests and happiness
above everything else.
•Utilitarianism: This theory puts a group’s interest and happiness
above those of an individual, for the good of many.
•Altruism: In altruism, an action is right if the consequences of that
action are favourable to all except the actor.
Deontology
•It concerns itself with the will of the action.
•An action is good or bad depending on the will inherent
in it.
•According to deontological theory, an act is considered
good if the individual committing it had a good reason to
do so.

Human Nature
•This theory considers human beings as endowed with all
faculties and capabilities to live in happiness.
•We are supposed to discover and then develop those
capabilities.
•Those capabilities become a benchmark for our actions.
Relativism
•This theory denies the existence of universal moral norms.
•It takes right and wrong to be relative to society, culture, or the
individual.
•Relativism also states that moral norms are not fixed in time.

Hedonism
•Hedonism claims that pleasure is the only good thing in human
life, the end of life as the highest good.
•A hedonist acts only for maximum pleasure, and whatever he or
she does, it is done to maximize pleasure or minimize pain.

Emotivism
•This theory maintains that ethical statements are neither true nor
false and cannot be proven.
•They are really only statements about how someone feels.
The Case for Computer Ethics Education

What Is Computer Ethics?

According to James H. Moore:

Computer ethics is the analysis of the nature and social

impact of computer technology and the corresponding
formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use
of such technology.
1.1 Why Study Computer Ethics

oCertain ethical issues are so transformed by the use of

computers that they deserve to be studied on their own
oThe involvement of computers in human conduct can
create entirely new ethical issues, unique to computing, that
do not surface in other areas
oWe should study computer ethics because doing so will
make us behave like responsible professionals
oWe should study computer ethics because doing so will
teach us how to avoid computer abuse and catastrophes
oWe should study computer ethics because the use of
computing technology creates, and will continue to create,
novel ethical issues that require special study
 Key Technology Trends that Raise New Ethical Issues

TREND IMPACT
Computing power More organizations depend on computer systems for
doubles every 18 critical operations and become more vulnerable to
months system failures.
Organizations can easily maintain detailed databases on
Data storage costs
individuals. There are no limits on the data collected
rapidly decline
about you.
Companies can analyse vast quantities of data gathered
on individuals to develop detailed profiles of individual
Data analysis advances
behaviour. Large-scale population surveillance is
enabled.
The cost of moving data and making it accessible from
Networking advances anywhere falls exponentially. Access to data becomes
more difficult to control.
Individual cell phones may be tracked without user
Mobile device growth
consent or knowledge. The always-on device becomes a
impact
tether.
The use of computers to combine data from multiple
sources and create digital dossiers of detailed information
on individuals is called profiling.
Why Computer Incidents Are So Prevalent

•Increasing Complexity Increases Vulnerability

•Higher Computer User Expectations
•Expanding and Changing Systems Introduce New Risks
•Increased Prevalence of Bring Your Own Device
Policies
•Growing Reliance on Commercial Software with
Known Vulnerabilities
•Increasing Sophistication of Those Who Would Do
Harm
 Ethical Issues in Business

Ethics has risen to the top of the business agenda because

the risks associated with inappropriate behaviour have
increased, both in their likelihood and in their potential
negative impact.

Making Ethical Decisions

Information Technology Professionals have conflicting

responsibilities to their employees, shareholders,
customers, business organizations, the public, and
professions they belong to.
Every major decision has consequences that potentially
harm or benefit these constituents.
For example, implementing a new computer
information system within an organization may
cause some employees to lose their jobs, while
those who remain enjoy the benefit of improved
working conditions.
Proportionality

The benefit from a decision must outweigh the risks.

There must be no alternative decision that provides the

same or greater benefit with less risk.

Justice: The benefits of the decision should be distributed

fairly to those who share the risks. Those who do not
benefit should not carry the burden of risk.

Minimize risk: Even if judged acceptable by the

principles, the decision should be implemented so as to
minimize all of the risks and avoid any unnecessary risks.
• Computer Ethics
• Privacy
• Security (Accuracy and Confidentiality)
• Ownership of Property
• Equity in Access
• Unemployment and Displacement
• Misuse of Computers
• Conflicts of Interest
• Legal Compliance
Codes of Ethics
A code of ethics establishes the standard of conduct for
each profession.

In mature professions, workers can be disbarred or lose

their licenses for serious violations of their ethics codes.

One of the signs of a mature profession is the presence of a

code of ethics or standard of professional conduct.

Legally, professionals are held to a higher standard for

their work than non-professionals performing work in the
same field.
There are areas where standards of acceptable behaviour
are not bounded by laws but by the more tenuous notion
of professional responsibility.

Some of these are:

•Confidentiality
•Competence
•Intellectual property rights
•Computer misuse
Depending on the domain, ethical codes can take any of
the following forms:

•Principles
•Public policies
•Codes of conduct
•Legal instruments
Benefits of Code of Ethics

•Code of Ethics establishes minimum performance

expectations.
•It gives employers and clients confidence about the
professional standards and character of computer
professionals who adhere to the Code.
•The Code provides a way for companies to show their
support for computer professional.
•Organizations attract computer professional with high
professional standards.
Objectives of Codes of Ethics

•Disciplinary
•Advisory
•Educational
•Inspirational
•Publicity
Professional Codes of Conduct

All professional bodies lay down a code of conduct that

their members are required to obey.

Sometimes the code is called a code of ethics.

Code of conduct sets out the standards of behaviour that

members of the body are expected to follow in their
professional life.

It looks outwards, in the sense that it is concerned with

the relationship between members and society as a
whole.
Most codes of ethics created by professional
organizations have two main parts.

 First part outlines what the organization

aspires to become

 Second part lists rules and principles by which

members of the organization are expected to
abide.
Many codes also include a commitment to
continuing education for those who practice the
profession.
 Laws do not provide a complete guide to
ethical behaviour.
Professional code of ethics can produce many
benefits for the individual, the profession, and
society as a whole.

Benefits include:
Ethical decision making
High standards of practice and ethical behaviour
Trust and respect from the general public
Evaluation benchmark
The primary purpose of professional codes of conduct is to
promote the public image of the profession by specifying
and enforcing the ethical behaviour expected of its
members.
Accordingly, and in most cases, professional codes:
 Define accepted standards of behaviour for the group.
 Promote high standards of practice.
 Provide benchmarks by which members can measure
and develop their personal standards.
 Define the ethical aspirations and identity of the group
both internally and in relation to the public and
communities around them.
 Exhibit a level of maturity to the outside world.
The above primary purpose of professional codes of
conduct addresses the following areas:

Moral and legal standards

Professional–client relationship
Client advocacy
Professional–public relationships
Sanction mechanics
Confidentiality
Assessment
Compliance
Competence
Certified professional credentials
How can professional codes of conduct be effective?
In order for professional codes of conduct to be effective, a
profession must institute a system of enforcement,
reporting, hearing procedures, sanctions, and appeals.

Codes without such systems in place are completely

ineffective.

A code of practice lays down the best way for

professionals to practise their profession.

For example, it might contain a clause such as: ‘Every

statement in the code must be executed at least once during
testing and testing must be carried out in such a way that it
can be demonstrated that this requirement has been met.’
There are several organizations for the range of professions
included in the general term computer professional.

The main ones are the ACM and the IEEE Computer
Society (IEEE-CS).

They developed the Software Engineering Code of Ethics

and Professional Practice (adopted jointly by the ACM and
IEEE CS) and the ACM Code of Ethics and Professional
Conduct.
The Codes emphasize the basic ethical values of honesty
and fairness.

They cover many aspects of professional behaviour:

•responsibility to respect confidentiality
•maintain professional competence
•be aware of relevant laws
•honour contracts and agreements

They stress the responsibility to respect and protect

privacy, to avoid harm to others, and to respect property
rights
An Example: Software Engineering Code of Ethics and
Professional Practice
 ACM/IEEE Code of Ethics

The Code contains eight Principles related to the

behaviour of and decisions made by professional
software engineers, including practitioners,
educators, managers, supervisors and policy
makers, as well as trainees and students of the
profession.
The two principal goals of the Code are:
The first principal goal is that "Software engineers shall
commit themselves to making the analysis, specification,
design, development, testing, and maintenance of
software a beneficial and respected profession.“
The second principal goal is that software engineers have
a "commitment to the health, safety and welfare of the
public."
These two goals are primary, and the eight specific
principles below are interpreted as supporting these
principal goals.
Software engineers shall adhere to the following eight
principles:
PUBLIC
Software engineers shall act consistently with the public
interest.

CLIENT AND EMPLOYER

Software engineers shall act in a manner that is in the best
interests of their client and employer consistent with the
public interest.

PRODUCT
Software engineers shall ensure that their products and
related modifications meet the highest professional standards
possible.
• JUDGMENT
– Software engineers shall maintain integrity and
independence in their professional judgment.

• MANAGEMENT
– Software engineering managers and leaders shall
subscribe to and promote an ethical approach to the
management of software development and
maintenance.

• PROFESSION
– Software engineers shall advance the integrity and
reputation of the profession consistent with the
public interest.
• COLLEAGUES
– Software engineers shall be fair to and
supportive of their colleagues.

• SELF
– Software engineers shall participate in lifelong
learning regarding the practice of their
profession and shall promote an ethical
approach to the practice of the profession.
End of Chapter 2