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Merga M. (PhD)
E-mail: tilburgu2012@gmail.com

Merga M. (PhD)
E-mail: tilburgu2012@gmail.com
Introduction to
Research

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 The Longman dictionary (1995) defines research as
“the studious study of a subject, that is intended to
discover new facts or test new ideas; the activity of
finding information about something that one is
interested in or needs to know about”.

 Research is the application of human intelligence in a

systematic manner to a problem whose solution is not
immediately available (Hertz).

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 '‘Research is original and creative intellectual
activity, carried out in the laboratory, the library
or in the field which endeavors to discover new
facts and to apprise and interpret them properly in
the light of previous knowledge (Klopsteg).
 Systematic inquiry that provides information to

guide decision (Cooper & Schindler, 2001)

 Business research is the application of scientific

methods to the search for the truth about business

phenomenon.

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 Why we need research;
or
What is the Significance of research?

 To identify and find solutions to the problems

 To help making decisions
 To develop new concepts
 To find alternative strategies
To determine the pattern of consumption
Solving various operational and planning problems

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Based on purpose:

 Exploratory

 Descriptive

 Explanatory

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 Exploratory research is conducted to clarify ambiguous
situations or discover potential business opportunities.
 It is not intended to provide conclusive evidence from
which to determine a particular course of action.
 In this sense, exploratory research is not an end unto itself.
 Usually exploratory research is a first step, conducted with
the expectation that additional research will be needed to
provide more conclusive evidence.
 Exploratory research is often used to guide and refine
these subsequent research efforts.
Exploratory Research

Secondary data

Experience survey

Pilot studies

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 As the name implies, the major purpose of
descriptive research is to describe
characteristics of objects, people, groups,
organizations, or environments.
 In other words, descriptive research tries to
“paint a picture” of a given situation by
addressing who, what, when, where, and how
questions.
 Unlike exploratory research, descriptive studies
are conducted after the researcher has gained a
firm grasp of the situation being studied.
 Causal research seeks to identify cause and-effect
relationships. When something causes an effect, it means it
brings it about or makes it happen. The effect is the outcome.
 Rain causes grass to get wet. Rain is the cause and wet
grass is the effect.

 The different types of research discussed here are often

building blocks—exploratory research builds the foundation
for descriptive research, which usually establishes the basis
for causal research.
 Although greater knowledge of the situation is a good thing,
it doesn’t come without a price. Causal research designs can
take a long time to implement. Also, they often involve
intricate designs that can be very expensive.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Based on Outcome
 Fundamental Research versus Action
Research

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Based on Time
Longitudinal versus cross sectional
research

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Based on Environment
 Field versus Laboratory research

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Based on process
 Quantitative versus quantitative

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 Research Process
Problem Discovery Problem Selection of
and Definition discovery Sampling
technique
Sampling

Selection of
exploratory research
technique Probability Non-probability

Secondary
Experience Pilot Case Collection of
(historical) Data
survey study study data
data Gathering
(fieldwork)

Data
Editing and
Problem definition Processing
coding
(statement of and
Analysis data
research objectives)

Data
Selection of processing
Research Design basic research
method Conclusions
Interpretation
and Report
of
findings
Experiment Survey
Secondary
Laboratory Field Interview Questionnaire Observation
Data Study
Report
 Unit Two

Problem Defiinition
 Problem Discovery And Definition
• First step
• Problem, opportunity, or monitor operations
• Discovery before definition
• Problem means management problem
“The formulation of the problem is
often more essential than its
solution”

Albert Einstein
 Experience Case
Secondar Pilot Study
y Survey
Study
(historica
l)
Data

Exploratory
Research
 The Process of
Problem Definition
Ascertain the Determine unit
decision maker’s of analysis
objectives

Understand Determine
background of relevant
the problem variables

Isolate/identify State research

the problem, not questions and
the symptoms objectives
 Ascertain the Decision Maker’s
Objectives
• Decision makers’ objectives
• Managerial goals expressed in measurable
terms.

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 The Iceberg Principle
• The principle indicating that the dangerous
part of many business problems is neither
visible to nor understood by managers.
 Understand the Background of the
Problem
• Exercising judgment
• Situation analysis - The informal gathering of
background information to familiarize
researchers or managers with the decision
area.

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Isolate and Identify the Problems, Not
the Symptoms
• Symptoms can be confusing

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 Symptoms Can Be Confusing
Twenty-year-old neighborhood swimming
association:
• Membership has been declining for years.
• New water park -residents prefer the
expensive water park????
• Demographic changes: Children have grown
up
 Problem Definition
Organization Symptoms Based on Symptom True Problem

Twenty-year- Membership has Neighborhood Demographic

old been declining residents prefer changes: Children
neighborhoo for years. New the expensive in this 20-year-old
d swimming water park with water park and neighborhood
association wave pool and have negative have grown up.
in a major water slides image of Older residents
city. moved into town no longer swim
swimming pool.
a few years ago. anywhere.
 Determine the Unit of Analysis
• Individuals, households, organizations, etc.
• In many studies, the family rather than the
individual is the appropriate unit of analysis.

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 Determine the Relevant Variable
• Variable
– is anything that may assume different numerical
values

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 Hypothesis
• A statement
• that can be refuted
• by empirical data
• An unproven proposition
• A possible solution to a problem
• Guess
State the research questions and
research objectives

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If you do not know where you are going,
any road will take you there.
 Unit Three

Research and Sampling Design

 Planning the Research Design
• After the researcher has formulated the
research problem, he or she must develop the
research design.
• A research design is a master plan that
specifies the methods and procedures for
collecting and analyzing the needed
information.
 Planning the Research Design
• A research design provides a framework or
plan of action for the research.

• Objectives of the study determined during the

early stages of research are included in the
design to ensure that the information
collected is appropriate for solving the
problem.
 Techniques of research designs
Four basic design techniques for descriptive and causal
research:
 surveys
 experiments
 secondary data, and
 observation
• The objectives of the study,
• the available data sources,
• the urgency of the decision, and
• the cost of obtaining the data will determine which
method should be chosen.
 Common design in business
• In business research, the most common
method of generating primary data is
• the survey
• A survey is
• a research technique in which a sample is
interviewed in some form or the behavior of
respondents is observed and described in some
way.
 Common design in business
• Business researchers describe some group of
interest (such as executives, employees,
customers, or competitors) using a
questionnaire.
• The task of writing a list of questions and
designing the format of the printed or written
questionnaire is an essential aspect of the
development of a survey research design.
 THE “BEST” RESEARCH DESIGN

• It is argued that there is no single best

research design.
• As such, the researcher often has several
alternatives that can accomplish the stated
research objectives.
 THE “BEST” RESEARCH DESIGN
• Consider the researcher who must forecast
sales for the upcoming year.
• Some commonly used forecasting methods
are;
• surveying executive opinion,
• collecting sales force composite opinions,
• surveying user expectations,
• projecting trends, and
• analyzing environmental factors.
 THE “BEST” RESEARCH DESIGN

• Any one of these may yield a reliable forecast.

• The ability to select the most appropriate
research design develops with experience.
• Inexperienced researchers often jump to the
conclusion that a survey methodology is
usually the best design because they are most
comfortable with this method.
Sampling Design
 Sample
• Subset of a larger population
 Population
• Any complete group
– People
– Sales territories
– Stores
 Census
• Investigation of all individual elements that
make up a population
 Target Population
• Relevant population
• Operationally define
 Sampling Frame
• A list of elements from which the sample may
be drawn
• Working population
• Mailing lists - data base marketers
• Sampling frame error
 Sampling Units
• Group selected for the sample
– Primary Sampling Units (PSU)
– Secondary Sampling Units
– Tertiary Sampling Units
 Random Sampling Error
• The difference between the sample results
and the result of a census conducted using
identical procedures
• Statistical fluctuation due to chance variations
 Systematic Errors
• Nonsampling errors
• Unrepresentative sample results
• Not due to chance
• Due to study design or imperfections in
execution
Two Major Categories of Sampling
• Probability sampling
• Known, nonzero probability for every element
• Nonprobability sampling
• Probability of selecting any particular member
is unknown
 Nonprobability Sampling
• Convenience
• Judgment
• Quota
• Snowball
 Convenience Sampling

• Also called haphazard or accidental sampling

• The sampling procedure of obtaining the
people or units that are most conveniently
available
 Judgment Sampling
• Also called purposive sampling
• An experienced individual selects the sample
based on his or her judgment about some
appropriate characteristics required of the
sample member
 Quota Sampling
• Ensures that the various subgroups in a
population are represented on pertinent
sample characteristics
• To the exact extent that the investigators
desire
• It should not be confused with stratified
sampling.
 Snowball Sampling
• A variety of procedures
• Initial respondents are selected by probability
methods
• Additional respondents are obtained from
information provided by the initial
respondents
 Probability Sampling
• Simple random sample
• Systematic sample
• Stratified sample
• Cluster sample
• Multistage area sample
 Simple Random Sampling
• A sampling procedure that ensures that each
element in the population will have an equal
chance of being included in the sample
2. Systematic Random
Sample
• a random starting point selected

• every Kth unit in the frame is selected,

•where:

K = Population Size
Sample Size

produces very accurate estimates when

elements in population exhibit order
 Stratified Sampling
• Probability sample
• Subsamples are drawn within different strata
• Each stratum is more or less equal on some
characteristic
• Do not confuse with quota sample
 Cluster Sampling
• The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample
economically while retaining the
characteristics of a probability sample.
• The primary sampling unit is no longer the
individual element in the population
• The primary sampling unit is a larger cluster of
elements located in proximity to one another
 Examples of Clusters

Population Element Possible Clusters in Ethiopia

Ethiopian farmers Regions

Zones
Woreda
Kebele
Teams
Households
 Sample Size
• sample size (number of elements in sample) and
precision of the study are directly related
• The larger the sample size the higher is the accuracy.
• The sample size determination is purely statistical
activity, which needs statistical knowledge.
• the adequate size of a sample is properly estimated
by deciding what level of accuracy is expected (i.e.
how large a standard error or sampling error is
acceptable)
Sample Size: Confidence interval
• In most case (research) 95% confidence level is used. That
is, it is assumed that 95 times out of 100 the estimate from
sample will include the population parameter.
• Once the above concepts are understood and determined
the size of sample is quite simple to determine. It is
determined based on the following relationship.
n = (ZS/E)2 and (for unlimited population)

n = N/ (1+N (e) 2 (for known population)

Where Z is standardization value indicating a confidence level
E represents acceptable magnitude of error  an error factor
S represents sample SD or an estimate of the population SD
n represent sample size
Unit Four

Measurement
 Measurement

There are four scale of measurement in statistics:

1.Nominal scale
2.Ordinal scale
3.Interval scale
4.Ratio scale

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Different types of data fall into three categories in SPSS
data analysis
Nominal variables
Ordinal variables
Interval/Scale variables

 The Dichotomous variables are either

characterized as nominal or ordinal depending on
the data nature
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1. Nominal variables
These variables can not be rank ordered at all. An
example would be to offer alternative answers in a
multiple choice question such as “hot” “spicy”
“sweet” “salty”.

2. Dichotomous variables
• As the name implies these are answers which can
only fall into one of two categories. The usual kind is
a yes/no answer or a male/female gender. It is usually
best to treat these variables as a special kind of
nominal variable.
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3. Ordinal variables
• These can be rank ordered but the space between the
variables is not equal across the range.
• For example, suppose we ask respondents Likert
scale questions Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree

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4. Interval variables
• The highest form of measurement and the easiest to
manipulate and analysis.
• There is a fixed space (interval) between each variable and this
is a consistent space.

For example: age, income, time, revenue etc.

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Business Research Methods
(Tutor Marked Assignment)

Instructors:

1. Dr. Yitbarek T.
2. Dr. Merga M.
3. Dr. Workneh K.

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 Tutor Marked Assignment
TMA Unit One:
a) Clearly explain the main differences between fundamental and applied
research types.
b) Give at least two examples for each type.
c) In case you are assigned to conduct a research that focuses on the
performance of organizations, which type of research would you more
likely use? Why?

TMA Unit Two:

a) What are the benefits of having clearly stated research questions? And
also enumerate characteristics of a good research question.
b) Describe similarities and differences between research questions and
research hypothesis.
c) What is the role of designing a problem statement? And what are the
potential sources of your research problem?

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 Tutor Marked Assignment
TMA Unit three:
a)Enumerate and explain the main research design types under the
survey design.
b) What are the various basis of classifying the research design?

TMA unit Four:

a)Compare and contrast among the sampling design types.
b)Define the concepts of measurement and operationalization.
c)What are the relevance of measurement and operationalization in
conducting a social research?
d)Clearly discuss on four types of measurements.
 Tutor Marked Assignment
TMA unit Five:
a) What are the main rationale for using sampling methods in a
research?
b) Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of
different sampling methods.

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