Advances in Welding and Joining

Technologies
Saravanan A / AP (Sr.G)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Kongu Engineering College

1
Solid State Welding Processes

✔ Solid state bonding mechanism

✔ Cold welding
✔ Ultrasonic welding
✔ Friction stir welding
✔ Diffusion bonding
✔ Explosive welding
✔ Forge Welding
✔ Roll Welding
✔ Hot Pressure Welding

2
 Introduction

⮚ Need of Solid State Welding

1. Joining of dissimilar metals and alloys

2. Joining of difficult to weld metals like Aluminum and

super
alloys.

3. Stronger & Intermetallic free welds

⮚ Solid State Welding Techniques

1. Pressure 2. Ultrasonic Welding
Welding 4. Friction Welding
3. Diffusion 3
 Introduction

Understanding about microstructural and surface

conditions of work piece
- Under microscopic scale
- Surfaces are irregular
- Covered with oxide and contaminant films
- May be microstructural/compositional irregularities
- Number of mechanisms to form bond between surfaces
- Asperities of the surfaces must be collapsed
Contaminant layer
Oxidized layer
mechanically and/or chemically affected metal

Base metal

4
 Introduction
⮚ Intimate contact mechanically
1. Contaminant films can be broken up by mechanical action
2. Break down the metal oxides by dissolution into the
matrix
3. Local yield stress exceeded on the contact surface and
4. Surface deformation is used to create contact

5
 Introduction

⮚ Bonding Mechanism of Solid State Welding

1. Localized Melting

2. Diffusion

3. Recrystallization

4. Adhesion

5. Interfacial Reaction

6. Interfacial Morphology
6
 Introduction
⮚ Localized Melting
⮚ It is observed in
• Explosive Welding
• Friction Welding
• Ultrasonic Welding
⮚ Frictional heating during welding causes localized melting
⮚ Melting may lead to inter-metallic compounds which may
lower the bonding strength
⮚ Diffusion
⮚ It is thermally activated process related to the material
properties and applied temperature-time.
⮚ Recrystallization
⮚ Intimate contact between two mating surfaces can be achieved
by means of recrystallization process by means of migration
grain boundaries
of 7
 Introduction

⮚ Adhesion

⮚ Resulting from atomic attraction has been widely accepted as

the bonding mechanism for all kinds of solid state bonding
techniques

⮚ Atomic attraction between two atoms reaches a maximum at an

inter-atomic distance of several angstroms (10-10 m) and it is
proportional to the inverse of the square of atomic distance

⮚ Two clean surfaces to be welded must be brought to within a

distance of 10x10-10 m

8
 Introduction
⮚ Interfacial reaction

⮚ Reaction of oxide films with weld metals

❖ Solubility of oxide at interface is important
⮚ Reaction between two weld metals
❖ Formation of intermetallic is harmful to the joint strength
⮚ Phase transformation during welding process

⮚ Interfacial Morphology

⮚ It is a unique characteristic in explosive welding in the form of

planner, wavy or molten layer interface
⮚ It depends upon the velocity of the
flyer plate relative to collision point and
angle 9
 Cold Welding

⮚ Cold welding is a solid-state

process in which pressure is
used at room temperature to
produce coalescence of metals
with substantial deformation at
the weld

⮚ Both butt and lap joints can be

cold welded

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 Cold Welding

Process of Cold Welding

⮚ The parts to be are
Dies
welded first
cleaned
⮚ A short section of the part is sheared
Workpiece Workpiece

⮚ The parts are clamped in a die with

some initial extension Before welding

⮚ A forgingforce is applied
to complete welding After welding
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 Cold Welding

Characteristics
⮚ At least one of the metals must be ductile without excessive
work- hardening
⮚ Total absence of applied heating
⮚ Dissimilar metals can be joined
⮚ Surface preparation is important

Applications
⮚ Cold welded butt joints are used in the
manufacturing of aluminum, copper, gold, silver, and platinum
wire
⮚ Most commonly, successive reels of wire are
joined for 12
 Ultrasonic welding

Where does the ultrasonic welding falls

Electrical

Solid
State Chemic
Weldi al
ng Fricti
on
Ultroson
Mechanic Pressure
al ic
Weld

13
 Ultrasonic welding
⮚ Coalescence is produced at the faying surfaces by the application
of high frequency vibratory energy
- while the workpieces are held together
under moderately
low static pressure
⮚ Produces a weld by oscillating shear forces at the interface between
the two metals being joined
- while they are held together under pressure

⮚ Types of Ultrasonic Welding

⮚ Wedge Reed System
⮚ Lateral Drive System
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 Ultrasonic welding
Wedge Reed System

⮚ Accurate control on Clamping

force
the
parameter is not possible due to
Mass
its bending through
which mechanical
mode
transfer to the work piece.
vibrations wedge Transducer

⮚ The anvil sometimes act as a

Sonotrode
vibrating part and resonates out tip
of phase to the reed.
Vibration
Weldment
⮚ That is why
the wedge reed system is Anvil
more sheets
joining of useful with
for Force
the
large
thickness. 15
 Ultrasonic welding
Lateral Drive System

⮚ Lateral drive system is simple and allows the welding parameters to

be measured via transducer

⮚ It gives good results for thin specimens due to its lower rigidity

⮚ Different types of welds like line, seam ring could be obtained 16

 Ultrasonic welding
Interfacial Interaction

⮚ Localized temperature rises resulting from interfacial slip

and plastic deformation.
⮚ Temperature is also influenced by power, clamping force,
and thermal properties of the material.
⮚ Localized Plastic Deformation
⮚ Metallurgical phenomena such as
recrystallizing, phase transformation, etc..... can
occur.

17
 Ultrasonic welding : Power Generation
• Frequency is transformed to
vibration energy through
Frequency
the transducer Electrical
energy
• Energy requirement established converter

Transducer
through the following
empirical relationship
– E = k(HV t)3/2
– E = electrical energy Vibratory
transducer
– HV = Vickers hardness number
– t= thickness of the sheet
• The constant “k” is a complex function that appears to involve primarily the
electromechanical conversion efficiency of the transducer, the impedance
match into the weld, and other characteristics of the welding system.
Different types of transducer systems have substantially different k values
 Ultrasonic welding
Advantages of Ultrasonic Welding
• No heat is applied and no melting occurs
• Permits welding of thin to thick sections
• Welding can be made through some surface coatings
• Pressures used are lower, welding times are shorter, and
the thickness of deformed regions are thinner than for
cold welding
Limitations
• The thickness of the component adjacent to the sonotrode
tip must not exceed relatively thin gauges because of power
limitations of the equipment.
• Process is limited to lap joints
• Butt welds can not be made because there is no means of
supporting the work pieces and applying clamping 19
 Ultrasonic welding
Process Parameters

• Ultrasonic power
• Clamping force
• Welding time
• Frequency
• Linear Vibration Amplitude

20
 Ultrasonic welding
Sonotrode Tip and Anvil Material

High Speed Tool Steels Used to Weld

• Soft Materials
• Aluminum
• Copper
• Iron
• Low Carbon Steel

Hardenable Nickel-Base Alloys Used to Weld

• Hard, High Strength Metals and Alloys

21
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

⮚ Invented at the Welding Institute of UK in 1991, initially for welding

of aluminum alloys

⮚ Most Significant development in welding technology in a decade

⮚ It is a “Green” technology due to its

energy efficiency and environment friendliness

⮚ A specially designed non consumable rotating tool (Pin & Shoulder)

is
used.

⮚ The rotating tool is inserted into the abutting edges of rigidly clamped
plates/sheets and traversed along the line of joint 22
Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

23
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

⮚ The objectives of the FSW tool is to

▪ Generate heat at the work piece
▪ Move the material to form weld joint

⮚ Frictional and deformational effects results in

plasticizing of the materials

⮚ Advancing Side : The side which has similar sense of tool rotation
and traverse/translation direction is termed as advancing side

⮚ Retreating Side : The side which has opposite sense of tool rotation
and traverse/translation direction is termed as retreating side

24
Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

25
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Metallurgical Processing Zone

⮚ Friction stir weld closely resemble hot worked micro structure

of
typical aluminum
extrusion and forging

⮚ Therefore, the FSW Process can be modelled as a metal working

process in terms of five conventional metal working zones :
❑ Pre-heat
❑ Initial deformation
❑ Extrusion
❑ Forging and
❑ Post heat/ Cool down
26
Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Metallurgical Processing Zone

27
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Metal Flow Pattern

• Preheat zone ahead of the pin - temperature rises due to the

frictional heating of the rotating tool and adiabatic heating because
of the deformation of material

• The thermal properties of material and the traverse speed of the tool
govern the extent and heating rate of this zone

• As the tool moves forward an initial deformation zone forms

- material is heated to above a critical temperature
- magnitude of stress exceeds the critical flow stress of the
material, resulting in material flow.

• The material in this zone is forced both upwards into the shoulder
and downwards into the extrusion zone 28
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Metal Flow Pattern
• In the zone
with
extrusion
amaterial flows
finite around
width,
the pin from the front to
the rear

• A critical isotherm
on each
defines side
the width of the of
extrusion
thezone tool
where the
• Following the extrusion magnitude of stress and
zone iszone where
forging the the material from temperature are
the front of the tool is forced into the to
cavity left by the forward moving pin insufficient allow
under hydrostatic pressure condition metal flow.
29
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Metal Flow Pattern
• Behind the forging zone
is the post heat/cool zone
where the material cools
under either passive or
forced cooling condition.

• The shoulder of
helps theto tool
material constrain in
and this applies
also cavitya
• Material from shoulder zone is dragged downward forging force.
across the joint from the retreating
side towards the advancing side
30
Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

Joint configurations in FSW

31
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Process Parameters
⮚ Tool Rotation Rate (rpm)
▪ Clockwise or counter clockwise direction
▪ Tool rotation results in stirring and mixing of material around the
pin.
▪ Higher tool rotation rate generates higher
temperature due to frictional heating resulting in intense
mixing & stirring.
⮚ Tool Traverse Speed (mm/min)
▪ Effects in flow of stirred material from the front to the back of
the
pin.
⮚ Tool Rotation Rate (degree)
▪ Suitable tilt angle ensures effective holding of material by the
shoulder while moving the material from the front to the back
32
of the pin.
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Process Parameters
⮚ Plunge Depth/ Pin Insertion Depth

▪ Important for producing sound/smooth weld surface.

▪ Shallow plunge depth: Shoulder doesn’t touch contact the work

piece surface, thus cannot move the material from the front to
back of the pin producing welds with surface groove or
tunnel/inner channel.

▪ Deep plunge depth: Shoulder plunges into the work piece

producing excessive flash, producing significantly concave weld,
leading to local thinning of plate/sheet.
33
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Welding Process Parameters

❖ Travel Speed
❖ Spindle Speed
❖ Workpiece Thickness
❖ Plunge Depth
❖ Plunge Force
❖ Joint Offset
❖ Joint Gap
❖ Joint Mismatch
❖ Tool Geometry

34
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Advantages
⮚ Metallurgical Advantages

▪ Solid state process

▪ Fine micro structure
▪ Excellent properties in joint area
▪ Low distortion of work piece
▪ Good dimensional stability and
repeatability
▪ No loss of alloying elements
▪ Absence of cracking 35
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Advantages
⮚ Environmental Advantages

▪ No shielding gas
▪ No surface cleaning
▪ No grinding waste
▪ No solvent for degreasing
▪ No consumable materials like filler, flux, rods, gases
etc.

36
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW) - Tool
(a) Straight cylindrical pin tool
(b) Straight cylindrical square thread
pin tool
(c) Straight cylindrical V-thread
pin tool
(d) Taper cylindrical pin tool
(e) Taper cylindrical square thread
pin tool
(f) Taper cylindrical V-thread
pin tool
Higher compressive yield strength at elevated temperature
Dimensional stability and creep resistance
Thermal fatigue strength to resist repeated heating and cooling
cycles Good fracture toughness
Low coefficient of thermal expansion
High speed steel (HSS), Ni- alloys, Metal carbides and 37
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW) – Axial force

Tool: SS304 Workpiece: AA1100 Thickness: 6 mm

1100 rpm and 98 mm/min welding speed

Straight cylindrical square thread pin
38
.
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) Heat
Generation
Heat generation due to sliding and sticking friction condition
dQs = dQf +
dQp
Rs
Tool
shoulder

δ=
Rp

V
Contact state variable
V too
matrix
dQ =l (1 −
Tool
f
pin

δ)ωr𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡dA dQp =
δωrτcontactdA
τ uniform contact shear
contact
stress
τ =τfriction
= μp (sliding)

𝜎y
contact

τ =τ =
contact y
dQ =ω* r * dF
2 =ω* r2 *τ
contact *
3
Q = ω*r *τcontact
(sticking) dθdr ∫ ∫
Q =2 ()
Rs3
2
3 contact P *dθdr R
Q = 3 3πω δτy + 1 − δ μp
πωτ 2πR s

R −R
3 0 P
−3S R 39
 Hybrid Friction stir welding
FSW
(a) is developed
(b) in combination with secondary energy source
Exponintial Preheating source offset
Exponintial
Preheating source varying flux Preheating source varying flux

Lead distance Lead distance

Tool offset

FSW source High melting

FSW source Radial varying temperature
flux Radial
material
Y varying
flux
Weld Welding direction Y Weld
X X Welding direction
center line center line

Similar material Dissimilar material

Reduce the stresses of the tool
Local heat source is used to preheat the harder material
- adequate metal flow around the tool (better plasticization)
side
- prevents the formation of a large amount of brittle
40
intermetallic compounds
 Hybrid Friction stir welding
Reduces the process loads
Reduce the difference in flow stress value
High conductive material – recover the lost
heat Offset – controls the intermetallic
formation
Thermal energy assisted FSW
Electricity, induction, laser, plasma, arc, hot gas stream, gas
torch Electricity and induction are used for resistance heating of
the workpieces
Laser, gas and arc/plasma are applied for direct preheating

Mechanical energy assisted FSW

Ultrasonic energy is the only mechanical energy employed for this
purpose
in the process
Ultrasonic temperature
vibrations directly soften the material without much 41
 FSW of dissimilar materials

✔ Weld zone
increases in size
with time –
plunging period

✔ weld zone size

remains almost
constant

Weld zone properties varied

Workpiece consists of three zones –
❖ advancing side (copper)
❖ retreating side (aluminum)
❖ trapezoidal zone (can be considered as FGM zone) 42
FSW of dissimilar materials Al-Cu

Tool wear is a
concern

43
 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
Welding Defects

⮚ Inappropriate material flow and heat

generation
⮚ Tool rotational rate
⮚ Tool traverse speed
⮚ Improper tool geometry selection
⮚ Insufficient plunge depth
⮚ Unequal thickness of joining materials
⮚ Gap between plates
44
 Diffusion bonding

• A solid-state welding
Force Work pieces
process that
surfaces
produces coalescence
by of
thethe faying
A
application
pressure at elevated
of temperature.
• The B
does not
macroscopic
process deformation,
involve or
relative motion of the workpieces.
• A solid filler metal may or may not
be inserted between Schematic representation of
diffusion welding using
the
surfaces. faying
electrical resistance for
heating

45
 Diffusion bonding
Stages of Bond Formation

1st stage deformation

• 1st stage Asperities come
into contact.
and interfacial boundary
formation
– deformation forming
interfacial
boundary.
• 2nd stage
– Grain boundary migration
and pore elimination. 2nd stage grain 3rd stage volume
boundary migration diffusion pore
• 3rd stage and pore elimination elimination

– Volume diffusion and pore

elimination.
46
 Diffusion bonding
Factors Influencing Diffusion Welding

(Relation between Temperature and Diffusion Coefficient)

Temperature Time
X = C (Dt)1/2 = Diffusion Length
D = D0 e -Q/KT X = Diffusion length
– D = Diffusion coefficient C = A constant
– D0 = Diffusion constant D = Diffusion coefficient
t = Time
– Q = Activation energy
– T = Absolute temperature
– K = Boltzman’s constant

47
 Diffusion bonding
Applications
• Application in
titanium welding for
aerospace vehicles
• Diffusion welding of
nickel alloys - Inconel
600

• Dissimilar metal diffusion welding applications include Cu to Ti, Cu

to Al
• Brittle intermetallic compound formation must be controlled in
applications
these 48
 Explosive Welding
⮚ It is a solid state metal joining process that uses explosive force to
create metallurgical bond between two metal components.
⮚ Due to short time duration of impact there is adiabatic heat rise

Explosion
Chemical explosives
Flyer (cladding)
Deformed
zone Substrate Extreme velocity

Common application: Cladding carbon steel plate with a thin layer

of corrosion resistant material
49
 Explosive Welding - Jetting
✔ During explosion on the flyer plate, a
high pressure pulse is generated.
✔ This pulse propels the flyer plate at very high velocity.
✔ The jet is the product of the
collision of two metals surfaces.
✔ Jet formation allows two pure metallic
surfaces to join under extremely high
pressure.
✔ Occurrence of welding depends on piece of metal plate
collides at what angle with the parent metal plate
✔ For welding to occur, a jetting action is required
at the collision interface 50
 Explosive Welding
⮚ Process Geometry

▪ Parallel plate bonding is used for larger plates.

▪ Flyer plate velocity ranges from 250-500 m/s.

▪ Collision point velocity ranges from 1500-3000 m/s.

▪ Collision angle is 5-200.

The impact must be sufficiently high to cause the colliding

metal surfaces to flow hydro dynamically when they intimately
contact each other.
51
 Explosive Welding
Steps in Wave Formation & Bond Morphology
1. Impact produces shear deformation in the stationary base plate
which results in depression.

2. Conservation of volume causes upheaval of metal ahead of the

impact apex leading to hump formation.

3. Hump interfaces with the jet flow and produces eddy in the jet

4. Allowing for collision point velocity causes a forward

deformation of the hump and further jet turbulence which
again causes jet entrapment in front vortex.

5. Process is then repeated starting with step 1.

52
 Explosive Welding
Theoretical boundaries of Wave Formation for collision

a) Flat streams of Newtonian liquids

b) Flat Plates of elastic Plastic Solids
c) Typical Observed boundary of Wavy bond Zone

Minimum Dynamic Bend Angle:

βmin Hv
=k
ρvc2
Hv : Flyer plate hardness
𝜌 : density
vc: Collision point velocity 53
ForgeWelding:
Forge welding is a process that involves heating two pieces of
metal before hammering, pressing or rolling them together to
create a joint.
Originally developed in the Middle Ages, it is one of the oldest
known methods for joining metals and is an essential skill for
blacksmiths.
Roll welding is a process in which two or more sheets or
plates are stacked together and then passed through the rolls
until sufficient deformation has occurred to produce solid-state
welds.