TITLE: QUANTUM

COMPUTATION
(QUBITS)
Name of the Teacher: TEAM 4
Department of Physics
School of Applied Sciences
SYLLABUS

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 What is a quantum computer ?
A quantum computer is a machine that performs calculations
based on the laws of quantum mechanics, which is the behavior of
particles at the sub-atomic level.
A classical computer works with ones and zeros
A quantum computer will have the advantage of using ones, zeros
and “superposition” of ones and zeros.

1982 - Feynman proposed the idea of creating machines based on the laws of quantum
mechanics instead of the laws of classical physics. This lead to the idea of Quantum
Computing.

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1. A building block of classical computational devices is a two-state
system.

2. 0 ←→ 1

3. Indeed, any system with a finite set of discrete, stable states,

with controlled transitions between them will do.

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WHAT IS QUBIT ?

A quantum bit is called qubit

A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted by 0 and 1

A single bit of this form is known as a qubit

A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom.
An excited state representing 1 and a ground state representing 0

Excited Light pulse of

State frequency  for
time interval t

Nucleus
Ground
State Electro
State |0> n State |1>
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 BLOCH SPHERE

The Bloch sphere provides a useful means of

visualizing the state of a single qubit and
operations on it. Any point on this sphere
represents a linear combination of the 0 and
1 states with complex coefficients. A π/2-
pulse 'rotates' a qubit from the 0-state to a
superposition state.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BITS AND QUBITS IN QUANTUM
COMPUTING :

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DIRAC NOTATION OF STATES

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 QUANTUM GATES

Quantum Gates are similar to classical gates, but do not have a degenerate
output. i.e., their original input state can be derived from their output state,
uniquely. They must be reversible.

This means that a deterministic computation can be performed on a

quantum computer only if it is reversible.

Luckily, it has been shown that any deterministic computation can be made
reversible (Charles Bennet, 1973).

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OPERATIONS ON QUBITS - REVERSIBLE LOGIC

1. Due to the nature of quantum physics, the destruction of information in a gate will
cause heat to be evolved which can destroy the superposition of qubits.
Ex.
The AND Gate
In these 3 cases,
A B C information is
being destroyed
A 0 0 0
C 0 1 0
B
1 0 0
1 1 1

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PAULI GATES SYMBOLS

Pauli gate symbol :

Single Qubit gates that take a

single Qubit as input and produce
a single Qubit as the output.
Hadamard gate symbol :

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Single qubit logic gates -
Pauli’s X gate
SINGLE QUBIT LOGIC GATES - PAULI’S Y GATE

1. The Y gate

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SINGLE QUBIT LOGIC GATES - PAULI’S Z GATE

1. The z gate

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SINGLE QUBIT LOGIC GATE - HADAMARD
1. Simplest gate involves one qubit and is called a Hadamard Gate (also
known as a square-root of NOT gate.) Used to put qubits into
superposition.

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QUANTUM GATES - CONTROLLED NOT

1. A gate which operates on two qubits is called a Controlled-NOT (CN) Gate. If the
bit on the control line is 1, invert the bit on the target line.

Note: The CN gate has a similar behavior to the XOR gate with
some extra information to make it reversible.

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CONTROLLED CONTROLLED NOT (CCN)
GATE

A gate which operates on three qubits is called a Controlled Controlled NOT (CCN) Gate. If the
bits on both of the control lines is 1,then the target bit is inverted.

A B C A’ B’ C’
A - Target A’ 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
B - Control 1 B’
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
C - Control 2 C’
1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1

The CCN gate has been shown to be a universal reversible logic gate as it can be used as a NAND
gate.
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TWO-QUBIT GATES

Single Qubit gates are defined using 2 x 2 matrices. Two-Qubit gates need 4 x 4 matrices. Likewise, n
qubit gate needs 2n x 2n matrices.

CNOT (CONTROLLED NOT) GATE

As the name suggests CNOT gate conditionally perform the not operation. It takes the input Qubit and a control
Qubit as inputs. If the bit on the control line is 1, invert the bit on the target line. When looking at the truth table
carefully we can see that output is equal to x XOR y.

(Target )

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SUMMARY 0F ONE QUBIT
GATES

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 INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
1. Definition: Quantum Information Technology utilizes principles of quantum mechanics to
process, store, and transmit information.
2. Core Principle: Quantum superposition and entanglement.
Introduction
1. A new quantum information technology (QIT) could emerge in the future, based on
current research in the fields of quantum information processing and communication
2. Quantum Information Processing and Communication (QIPC). In contrast to conventional
IT, where quantum mechanics plays a support role in improving the building blocks,
fundamental quantum phenomena play a central role in QIPC — information is stored,
processed, and communicated according to the laws of quantum physics. This additional
freedom could enable future QIT to perform tasks we will never achieve with ordinary IT.

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SUPER POSITION OF QUBIT
STATES

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SUPER POSITION OF QUBIT
STATES

State |0> + |1>

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 SUPER POSITION OF QUBIT
STATES

|0> 1 1
Probability |0 |1  |1>
1/2 2 2 1 1
|0 |1 
1 1 2 2
|0 |1 
2 2
|1> Probability 1/2
Probability 1/2

Probability
1/2

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QUANTUM SUPERPOSITION

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1.It is an extremely strong correlation that exists between quantum
particles
2.Two or more quantum particles can be inextricably linked in perfect
unis-on, even when placed at opposite ends of the universe.
3.This seemingly impossible connection inspired Einstein to describe
entanglement as “Spooky action at a distance”.

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ENTANGLEMENT

Entanglement is the ability of quantum systems to exhibit correlations between

states within a superposition.

Imagine two qubits, each in the state |0> + |1> (a superposition of the 0 and 1.)
We can entangle the two qubits such that the measurement of one qubit is
always correlated to the measurement of the other qubit.

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QUANTUM ENTANGLEMENT

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1. The biggest quantum computing challenge, possibly, is qubit
decoherence. Qubits are extremely sensitive to their environment, and
even small disturbances can cause them to lose their quantum
properties, a phenomenon known as decoherence.
2. Scaling up the technology. Currently, quantum computers are limited
to a few dozen qubits, which is not enough to solve complex problems.
However, researchers are working on developing more stable and
scalable qubits to increase the processing power of quantum computers.
3.High cost of quantum hardware and the difficulty of building and
maintaining quantum computers. The development of quantum
computers requires specialized expertise and expensive equipment,
which limits their accessibility to only the largest tech companies and
research institutions. However, as research in quantum computing
continues to progress, we can expect to see the costs of quantum
hardware decrease over time.
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QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY

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QUANTUM KEY DISTRIBUTION (QKD)

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 SECURITY GUARANTEES OF QKD
 No-Cloning Theorem: Quantum information cannot be copied exactly.
The no-cloning theorem asserts that it is impossible to create an exact
copy of an unknown quantum state. This property ensures that
eavesdroppers cannot perfectly replicate quantum information to
intercept and decode it without detection.
 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: Measuring quantum states disturbs
them. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that certain pairs of
physical properties (like position and momentum) cannot both be
measured precisely at the same time. In quantum cryptography, this
principle ensures that measuring a quantum state necessarily alters it,
thereby revealing any eavesdropping attempts.
 Implications: Eavesdropping can be detected.

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 ADVANTAGES OF QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY

 Theoretical Security: The security of quantum cryptography is

based on the laws of quantum physics rather than the difficulty of
mathematical problems, making it theoretically secure against any
computational attack.

 Eavesdropping Detection: Any attempt to intercept or measure the

quantum states used in QKD introduces detectable errors,
ensuring that the parties can detect if their communication has
been compromised.

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CHALLENGES

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USEFUL LINKS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xGAyI5fufmk (Qubits)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xD2iqmI9LzY (Geometric representation)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qxhoMD5LnxU (Single qubit gates)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bs1UupkMUvg (Two qubit gates)

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 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
1. https://youtu.be/uPnHzQ7qJ2Y?si=tvkIeAyHv9P92QaA
2. https://youtu.be/6IhQnWb44zk?si=KRBcL1yQ6Sn23tBy
3. https://youtu.be/6IhQnWb44zk?si=o1fD_3OjHOSw38_J

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Thank You