Battery Technology

Module: 2: Battery Technology [3 Sessions] [Comprehension Level]

Basics of electrochemical energy systems, Construction, working mechanism and

applications of primary (dry cell) and Secondary (lead-acid) batteries, Lithium
batteries: primary and secondary. Fuel cells: hydrogen-oxygen: Principle, working
and their applications

Self-learning: Methanol-oxygen: Principle, working and their applications

Basics of electrochemical energy systems, Construction, working
mechanism and applications of primary (dry cell) and Secondary (lead-
acid) batteries, Lithium batteries: primary and secondary. Fuel cells:
hydrogen-oxygen: Principle, working and their applications
ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY
SOURCES/SYSTEMS
Basic Concepts in ELECTROCHEMISTRY
 What is
electrochemistry?
Electrochemistry is defined as the branch of
chemistry that examines the phenomena
resulting from combined chemical and
electrical effects.
Or,

Electrochemistry, studies the generation of

electricity by chemical processes and vice
versa.
 Types of processes
 Electrolytic processes:
Reactions in which chemical changes occur in the
presence of applied electrical current

 Galvanic or Voltaic processes:

Electrical energy is generated due to the Chemical
reactions.
 Galvanic Cell

• An galvanic cell is a device that converts chemical

energy into electrical energy through redox reactions.

• It consists of two electrodes (anode and cathode)

immersed in an electrolyte solution.

• These electrodes are typically made of different

materials and are connected through an external circuit,
allowing the flow of electrons from one electrode to
another.
 Modes of charge
transport
o Charge transport in the electrodes
occurs via the motion of electrons (or
holes),
o Charge transport in the electrolyte
occurs via the motion of ions (positive
and negative)
 Half and Overall Cell reactions

o At each electrode, an electrochemical reaction

occurs. This reaction is called a half cell reaction.
o The overall cell reaction is the combination of the
two individual half cell reactions.

In overall cell reaction,

Electrons lost in oxidation half cell = Electrons gained in
reduction half-cell
 Half cell reaction types
 There are two fundamental types of half cell
reactions:
 Oxidation half cell reactions

 Reduction half cell reactions

A reaction is classified as oxidation or reduction

depending on the direction of electron transfer
 Oxidation
 Involves the loss of an electron

 Increase in Oxidation number.

 Involves the transfer of electrons from the

electrode to the species.
 Always occurs in Anode.

R = O + n e-

Example, Zn = Zn+2 + 2e-

 Reduction
 Involves the gain of an electron

 Decrease in Oxidation number.

 Involves the transfer of electrons from the

species to the electrode
 Always occurs in Cathode

O + n e- = R

Example, Cu+2 + 2e- = Cu

 Example of electrochemical cell

Zinc-Copper galvanic cell

Zinc and copper metals

placed in a solution of
their respective sulfates.

Salt bridge is used to maintain electrical neutrality in the

half-cells by allowing the flow of ions between them
without mixing the electrolyte solutions

Half Cell Reactions:1) Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e− (oxidation)

2) Cu2+(aq) + 2e−→ Cu(s) (reduction)

Overall cell reaction: Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

 Convention
 Electrode at which the oxidation reaction occurs is
called the anode
 Electrode at which the reduction reaction occurs is
called the cathode

In the above example, Zn electrode is anode and Cu

electrode is cathode.
Electrochemical series
Applications of electrochemical
series:
1. Relative ease of oxidation (or) Reduction:
Higher standard electrode potentials, greater tendency to undergo
reduction and act as cathodes.

Lower standard electrode potentials, greater tendency to undergo

oxidation and act as anodes.

2. Calculation of standard EMF of the cell: Standard EMF of

the cell is the sum of the standard reduction potential of the
reduction half cell and oxidation half cell

Eocell = Eored + Eoox

3. Galvanic Cells and Batteries: Electrochemical series knowledge
helps in selecting appropriate electrode materials to create batteries with
desired voltage and performance characteristics.

4. Electroplating: The electrochemical series helps in selecting

suitable metals for the anode (the metal to be plated) and the cathode (the
substrate)

5. Corrosion Prevention: By coating a metal with a less reactive

metal or alloy, the more reactive metal is protected from corrosion.

6. Fuel Cells: The electrochemical series helps in selecting suitable

materials for the electrodes and electrolytes to optimize the performance of
fuel cells.
 Electrode potential

Electrode potential refers to the potential

difference between an electrode and its
surrounding electrolyte solution when no current
is flowing through the cell.

• Measured in volts (V)

 Standard electrode
potential
It is the measure of tendency of a metallic
electrode to lose or gain electrons, when it
is in contact with a solution of its own salt
of one molar (1 M) concentration, 1 atm
pressure at 25°C.
 Reduction potential
It is the measure of the tendency of a
chemical species to acquire electrons and
thereby be reduced.
Reduction potential is measured in volts
(V), or millivolts (mV).
 Nernst Equation
A quantitative relationship between electrode
potential and concentration of substance involved is
called Nernst equation.
For the given redox reaction:

aA + ne- bB

The Half cell reduction potential is given by:

b Where: E = actual ½ cell reduction potential

o RT AB Eo = standard ½ cell reduction potential
E E  ln n = number of electrons in reaction
nF a
AA T = temperature (K)
at 25oC R = ideal gas law constant (8.314J/(K-mol)
b
0.05916V [ B ] F = Faraday’s constant (9.649x104 C/mol)
 E E o  log A = activity of A or B
n [ A]a

Spontaneity
Gcell = -nFEcell Spontaneous, ΔG < 0
Non-spontaneous, ΔG  0
Significance:
 It is used to find the electrode potentials when the
temperature and concentrations are not standard.
 It is used to find the feasibility of reaction.

Applications:
 It gives us the trend of electrode potentials for those
above hydrogen in electrochemical series.
 In calculations of equilibrium constant.
 To decide spontaneity of a cell reaction.
Electrochemical Cell
 Battery
A battery is a device consisting of two or
more electrochemical cells that convert
stored chemical energy into electrical
energy.
Uses: Batteries are used
in calculators, watches
and pacemakers for
heart hearing aids,
computers, car
engines, standby
power supplies,
emergency lightning
in hospitals,
electroplating
History of Battery
 Components of a Battery
It contains active materials which
Anode spontaneously take part in the
oxidation reactions.

It contains active materials which

Cathode spontaneously take part in the
reduction reactions.
Components of
a Battery
It helps in the migration of the ions
Electrolyte leading to the generation of
electrical energy.

It is a thin polymeric membrane

Separator which prevents the mixing of
products formed at the electrodes.
Components of a Battery
 Charging and Discharging of a
Battery
The process in which spontaneous redox
reaction occurs is called discharging.
As electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through the
external circuit, the battery gradually loses its stored energy
until it is fully discharged.

The process of conversion of an inactive

material back into active materials in a cell is
called charging.
An external power source (or charger) is connected to the
battery. This applies an electric current to the battery,
reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge,
restoring the battery to a charged state. The anode becomes
the positive terminal and accepts electrons, while the
cathode becomes the negative terminal and releases
Operation of a Battery
 Classification
The batteries can be classified as:

1. Primary batteries

2. Secondary batteries

3. Reserve batteries
Primary Batteries/ Primary
cells/ Disposable Batteries
In these cells, the chemical energy is
converted into electrical energy as
long as the chemical components are
active.

Here the cell reaction is not

reversible. Hence are used once and
discarded.
Secondary Batteries/ Secondary
cells/ Rechargable Batteries

In these cells, the redox reaction that

converts chemical energy into
electrical energy can be reversed by
passage of current.

These are rechargeable batteries and

hence they are referred as storage
cells.

They must be charged before first use

as they usually assembled with active
 Reserve Batteries
provide emergency or backup power in the event of a primary
power source failure.

Uses in Emergency lighting, Security Systems (surveillance

cameras, alarms), Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

In these batteries, a key component is

separated from the rest of the battery prior to
activation.

Usually the electrolyte is the component that

is isolated.

In this condition, chemical deterioration or

self-discharge is essentially eliminated and the
Primary Batteries Secondary Reserve
(Single Use) Batteries Batteries
(Rechargeable
)

 Carbon Zn  Lead acid  Mg water

 Ag- Zn  Ni Cd activated
 Lithium Thionyl  NiMH batteries
chloride  Li-Ion  zinc – silver
 Alkaline  Li- polymer oxide
 Lithium coin
(LiMnO2)
 Lithium photo
 Classical Batteries
Primary batteries

Dry Cell: This cell, also

known as Leclanche cell
(Zinc-Carbon dry cell)
Anode: Zinc
Cathode: Carbon + MnO2
Electrolyte: NH4Cl
Cell output: 1.55 V

E0 = -0.76 V
E0 = +0.79 V

EMF=1.55 V
 Classical Batteries
Secondary (Storage) Cells

Lead Storage Cell (Lead–Acid Battery)

The lead–acid battery is a type of rechargeable battery first invented in 1859 by

French physicist Gaston Planté. It is the first type of rechargeable battery ever
created.

Anode: Pb
Cathode: PbO2
Electrolyte: H2SO4
Cell output: 2 V
 Modern Batteries
Lithium Batteries
Lithium is a light metal with low electrode potential and good
conductivity. It is, therefore, a good material for batteries, and
can be expected to have high potential and high energy density.

Anode: Li
Cathode: MnO2
Electrolyte: Non-aqueous (LiPF6)
Cell output: 3 – 3.5 V

These batteries have the following characteristics:

1. The batteries are light in weight and compact.
2. They are known for low maintenance and have high energy
density.
3. The battery offers an EMF of 3.0-3.5V
 Lithium Manganese dioxide batteries
(Primary Battery, non-rechargeable)

The cell reactions for the system are

Anode: Li Li+ + e-
Cathode: Mn+4O2 + Li+ + e- (Li+)Mn+3O2
The overall reaction is Li + Mn+4O2 (Li+)Mn+3O2
Manganese dioxide is reduced from the tetravalent to the
trivalent state by lithium. LiMnO2 signifies that the Li+ ion
enters into the MnO2 crystal lattice. The theoretical voltage
APPLICATIONS:

Used as long-term memory backup, safety and

security devices, cameras, lighting equipment and
many consumer electronic devices.
 Fuel Cells

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell in which the

chemical energy of the fuel-oxidant system is directly
converted into electrical energy.

e.g. H2-O2 fuel cell

Methanol-O2 fuel cell

It operates just like a galvanic cell with the exception that the
raw materials for the chemical reaction, being supplied from
outside
In a fuel cell electrical energy is obtained from oxygen and a fuel that can be oxidised .

The essential process in a fuel cell is

Fuel + Oxygen → Oxidation product +Electricity

ifference between Battery & Fuel Ce

Battery Fuel cell

1. Energy storage device 1. Energy conversion device
2. Rechargeable 2. Not rechargeable
3. Reactants and products form an integral 3. Reactants have to be continuously
part of battery components supplied and products need to be removed
continuously
4. Electrodes play an important role 4. Electrodes are present with no
significant role
5. Electrodes are used along with separator 5. Along with electrolyte, fuel and oxidant
and electrolyte needs to be continuously supplied

6. Less efficient operation 6. More efficient operation

7. Less ecofriendly 7. Ecofriendly
 Fuel Cells
They offer high energy conversion
(75%) and high energy density.

Ecofriendly since products are not

Advantages toxic.

They produce direct current for a

long periods at low cost.
Fuel Cells
The electrodes used are either Pt, Ag
or alloys of noble metal which are
prohibitively costly.
Disadvantages
The power generated is moderate.
Cell Representation
Hydrogen-oxygen
Fuel Cell
Advantages of Hydrogen–Oxygen It just emits water vapour and no other harmful
chemicals to the environment.
Fuel Cell

Hydrogen is the lightest element and provides a

lot of energy, and also it can be transported
easily to places where required.

Hydrogen fuel can replace the use of batteries

and causes less noise pollution.
Limitations of Hydrogen– Hydrogen is explosive.

For very good efficiency, it turns out to be very expensive, and

even the initial research which is to be carried out costs a lot of
Oxygen Fuel Cell

money.

Hydrogen is actually gas, so a large investment of cost and energy

is required to compress it into liquefied form.

While using these fuel cells in an automobile, a high pressure is

created inside the engine, which is quite risky.

Another great disadvantage would be that since hydrogen is never

present as it is, but always in combined form with either oxygen or
some other element, it needs to be separated first.
 Applications of H2-O2
Fuel Cells
1. It is used in military equipment which includes power for
soldier-carried equipment.
2. Battery charges.
3. Autonomous power for test and training instruments.
SELF-LEARNING TOPICS

SELF-LEARNING
TOPICS
Methanol-Oxygen Fuel Cell: (Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
 Working Principle of Methanol Oxygen Fuel Cell:

• A methanol oxygen fuel cell, also known as a Direct Methanol Fuel

Cell (DMFC), generates electricity by electrochemically oxidizing

methanol at the anode, producing protons and electrons.

• These protons then travel through a proton exchange membrane to

the cathode where they react with oxygen to form water, while the

electrons flow through an external circuit to create

electricity; essentially, methanol is directly converted to carbon

dioxide and water while producing power.

Working Principle
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs) use methanol (CH₃OH) and oxygen (O₂) to generate
electricity. Here's a detailed look at how they work:

1. Fuel: Methanol (CH3OH) is supplied as a liquid mixture with water at the anode.

2. Anode Reaction: Methanol and water are oxidized at the anode, producing carbon dioxide,
protons, and electrons.
CH3OH+H2O→CO2+6H++6e-
3. Electrolyte: A proton exchange membrane (PEM) allows protons (H ⁺) to pass through to
the cathode while blocking electrons.
4. Cathode Reaction: At the cathode, oxygen from the air combines with protons and
electrons to form water.
3/2O2+6H++6e−→3H2O
Overall Reaction: The combined reactions at the anode and cathode produce carbon dioxide,
water, and electricity.
CH3OH+3/2O2→CO2+2H2O+Electricity
Advantages and disadvantages
Besides the general advantages of fuel cells over conventional combustion engines,
direct methanol fuel cells are characterized by a simple system design and fast start-up
times. However, DMFCs are relatively sensitive to impurities in the fuel and have a
relatively low efficiency.
 Applications
Applications
1. Portable Electronics: DMFCs are used in devices like video cameras, DVD-
players, cell phones, medical devices, laptops, mobile phones, and digital
cameras due to their compact size and high energy density.
2. Remote Monitoring: Ideal for power supplies in remote or off-grid locations, such
as environmental monitoring stations and traffic control systems.
3. Leisure and Transportation: Provide auxiliary power for recreational vehicles,
boats, and caravans.
4. Military and Aerospace: Employed in situations where reliability and portability
are crucial, such as power sources for field equipment and unmanned aerial
vehicles.