Particle properties of waves

Blackbody radiation

Blackbody radiation is a term used to describe the relationship between an object's temperature, and
the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation it emits. A black body is an idealized object that absorbs
all electromagnetic radiation it comes in contact with It then emits thermal radiation in a continuous
spectrum according to its temperature. It is called ideal blackbody. In 1879 Josef Stefan found an
empirical relation between the power per unit area radiated by a blackbody and the temperature.

where R is power per unit area, T absolute temperature and =5.6703 Stefan constant. The power per
unit area is depends on only temperature. The same is true for spectral distribution of radiation
emitted by blackbody.
 Cont’d
Let R(λ)d λ be the power emitted per unit area with wave length between λ and λ +dλ.

The wavelength at which the distribution is a maximum varies inversely with temperature.

This is Wien’s displacement law.

The calculation of the distribution function R(λ) involves the calculation of the energy density of
electromagnetic waves in a cavity. Materials such as black velvet come close to being ideal
blackbodies, but the best practical realization of an ideal blackbody is a small hole leading to a
cavity.
 Cont’d

Radiation incident on the hole has little chance of being reflected back out the hole before it is
absorbed by the wall of the cavity. The power radiation out of the hole is proportional to the total
energy density U.

Where c is speed of light.

In a spectral distribution, )

The energy density distribution function U(λ) can be calculated from classical physics, the method
involves finding number of mode of oscillation the electromagnetic field in the cavity with wave
length in the interval dλand multiply by the average energy per modes of oscillation per unit volume
n(λ) is independent of shape of the cavity.
 Cont’d
According to classical physics theory U(λ)=kT

But in spectral distribution U(λ)=kT n(λ)= this prediction is Rayleigh-Jeans law.

Plank’s postulate

Energy density distribution function U(λ) approaches zero as λ approaches zero, so the average
energy per mode depends on wavelength λ, this is the equipartition theorem results E=kT must be
modified. The average energy for one dimensional simple harmonic oscillator is calculated
classically from the energy distribution function, which in turn found the Maxwell Boltzmann
distribution function. where C is normalization

So, the average energy is

 Cont’d
Plank found that he could drive his empirical function by calculating the average energy assuming
the energy to be district variable i.e it could take the value 0, ,2,3,……n n is an integer and is
proportional to the frequency of the radiation. So energy is:

where n=0,1,2,3,…. And h is plank’s constant=6.626 Js

The Maxwell distribution law become

The average energy of an oscillator is

 Cont’d

After same simplification

Multiply this by number of oscillator in the interval dλ the energy will be

this is called Plank’s law

For very large wavelength so, kT

Example1: the surface temperature of the sun is 5000K if the sun is assumed to be a blackbody
radiator at what wavelength would its spectrum peak?
 Photoelectric effect
The energy of electrons liberated by light depends on the frequency of the light. Photoelectric effect is the
transmission of electrons from a material caused by electromagnetic radiation like UV.

Einstine assumed tat energy quantization used by Plank in the blackbody problem was a universal
characteristics of light, rather than being distribute evenly in the space through which it is propagates. Light
energy consists of discrete quanta of energy hf, this quanta(photon) penetrates the surface of the cathode. All
energy is given completely to an electron.

If 𝜱 is energy required to remove the electron from the surface, the maximum energy of
the electron leaving from the surface:

this is the Einstine equation for photoelectric effect.

The threshold frequency labeled the threshold wavelengthare related

=h=
 Cont’d
Example

The threshold wavelength for potassium is 558nm,what is the work function for potassium atom?
What is the stopping potential when light of wavelength is 400?

solution

=h==0.0356J

==0.0487

The maximum energy emitted the electron

=E- =0.0487-0.0356=0.0131J
X-ray diffraction and Compton effect
A phenomena associated with change in direction x-ray beams due to interactions with the electrons
around the atom. It occurs due to elastic scattering , when there is no change in the energy of the
waves. The resulting direction of the x-rays far from the sample is called diffraction pattern. In the x-
ray diffraction depending on the angle of diffraction, the two things must be considered
• Angle of diffraction

• Intensity of spot

The intensity of the spot is directly proportional to the amount of electron in the plane. High density of electron means
there is high chance to finding the molecule or content of the original.
 Compton effect
Compton effect is one of a principle form of photon interaction. It is the main cause of scattered
radiation in a material. It occurs due to the interaction of the photon (x-ray, or gamma ray) with free
electron or loosely bound valance shell. The scattered photon will have a different wavelength and
energy.

This wavelength is Compton wavelength of electron.

 Pair production De Broglie waves
The De Broglie relation: in 1924 a French student, Louis de Broglie suggested that light
was known to have both wave and particle property.

For the frequency and wavelength of electron wave:-and

Where p is the momentum and E is energy of the electron.

The Bohr quantum condition for angular momentum is

Where S is the circumference of the circular Bohr orbit .

Example what is the De Broglie wavelength for a very small but microscopic object of mass g
moving with speed 3xm/se?
Describing a wave, Phase and group velocities

A wave is a disturbance in a medium that carries energy without a net movement of particles. It may
take the form of elastic deformation, a variation of pressure, electric or magnetic intensity, electric

potential, or temperature.

Types of Waves:
• Transverse Waves

• Longitudinal Wave

• Mechanical waves

• Matter Waves

• Electromagnetic Waves
 Cont’d

The phase velocity of a wave is the rate at which the wave propagates in any medium. This is
the velocity at which the phase of any one frequency component of the wave travels. For such a
component, any given phase of the wave (for example, the crest) will appear to travel at the phase
velocity. The phase velocity is given in terms of the wavelength λ (lambda) and time period T as

Equivalently, in terms of the wave's angular frequency ω, which specifies angular change per unit of
time, and wavenumber (or angular wave number) k, which represent the angular change per unit of
space,

The group velocity of a wave is the velocity with which the overall envelope shape of the
wave's amplitudes known as the modulation or envelope of the wave propagates through space.
 Particle diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading of waves around obstacles. Diffraction takes place with sound;
with electromagnetic radiation, such as light, X-rays and gamma rays; and with very small moving
particles such as atoms, neutrons, and electrons, which show wave like properties. One consequence
of diffraction is that sharp shadows are not produced. The phenomenon is the result
of interference (i.e., when waves are superimposed, they may reinforce or cancel each other out) and
is most pronounced when the wavelength of the radiation is comparable to the linear dimensions of
the obstacle. When sound of various wavelengths or frequencies is emitted from a loudspeaker the
loudspeaker itself acts as an obstacle and casts a shadow to its rear so that only the longer bass notes
are diffracted there.
 Particle in a box
In quantum mechanics, the particle in a box model (also known as the infinite potential well or
the infinite square well) describes the movement of a free particle in a small space surrounded by
impenetrable barriers. The model is mainly used as a hypothetical example to illustrate the differences
between classical and quantum systems. In classical systems, for example, a particle trapped inside a
large box can move at any speed within the box and it is no more likely to be found at one position than
another. However, when the well becomes very narrow (on the scale of a few nanometers), quantum
effects become important. The particle may only occupy certain positive energy levels.

In the one dimensional solution the potential energy is:

where L is the length of the box, is the location of center of box and x is position of particle in the
box.
 Uncertainty principle
The uncertainty principle, also known as Heisenberg's indeterminacy principle, is a fundamental
concept in quantum mechanics. It states that there is a limit to the precision with which certain pairs
of physical properties, such as position and momentum, can be simultaneously known. In other
words, the more accurately one property is measured, the less accurately the other property can be
known. It is impossible to simultaneously know the exact position and exact momentum of a
particle.

Uncertainty principle I (position and momentum uncertainty)

where is uncertainty position and is uncertainty momentum

Uncertainty principle II (energy- time uncertainty)

where energy in uncertainty uncertainty time

This indicates energy of the system can fluctuate if the observation time is short.