The

Immune
Response,
Immunity,
Vaccines,
Antivirals &
Antibiotics
 Specific Defences
 In our last lessons, we looked at defence mechanisms (reflexes, fever etc.) that
are not directed to a ‘specific’ pathogen (i.e. they act on ANY pathogen)
 Specific defences are those directed towards a particular pathogen.
 For example if you get infected (or vaccinated) with the chickenpox virus, you
develop antibodies to combat that specific virus. Those antibodies made by your
body will not work against other viruses or bacteria.
 The Immune Response
 Our immune systems is composed of cells and proteins that help protect our body
against foreign microorganisms.
 Some cells, such as phagocytes work non-specifically. Whereas cells, such as B-Cells
and T-Cells provide protection against specific pathogens.
 When B-Cells and T-Cells are stimulated, it brings about an immune response, which is
in fact a homeostatic mechanism. Our body creates a response to deal with the invading
microorganisms and restore our internal environmental back to its normal conditions.
 There are two immune responses:
 Antibody-mediated (aka Humoral) response
 Cell-Mediated response
Antibody-mediated Cell-mediated
response response
 B-Cells and T-Cells
 Are cells called Lymphocytes (B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes).
 They are both produced in the bone marrow and end up in the lymphoid tissue.
 About half of the cells of the bone marrow go to the thymus, where they mature into T-Cells
before being incorporated in lymphoid tissue.
 The other half of the cells stay and mature in the bone marrow to become B-cells and then
become part of the lymphoid tissue.
 Most lymphoid tissue is located in the lymph nodes. Some is found in the spleen,
thymus gland and tonsils.
 Antigens
 An antigen is any ‘foreign’ substance capable of triggering an immune
response.
 Antigens are large molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids or
nucleic acids and may include
 whole or part of a micro-organism (virus/bacteria),
 a toxin
 molecules of cells such as blood cells
 pollen grains
 egg whites
 Antigens
 Antigens produced in the person’s body that do not cause an immune
response are self antigens
 Those that are foreign, are non-self antigens
 self antigens are already programmed by birth. Since birth – body only
attacks non-self.
 Immune system can (or should be able to) distinguish self-antigens and
non-self antigens
 Sometimes the body attacks self-antigens (they are seen as foreign) 
auto-immune disease
 Autoimmune diseases
• arises from an inappropriate immune response against substances and tissues
normally present in the body
• the immune system mistakes some part of the body as a pathogen (self-antigens
considered non-self) and attacks its own cells
• treatment is typically with immunosuppression medication
• examples: Type 1 diabetes mellitus, Hashimoto’s disease, Graves Disease (main
type of hyperthyroidism), Celiac disease, Lupus, eczema, rheumatoid arthritis etc…
Antibody-Mediated Response
Antibody-mediated
response
 Antibody-mediated response
 aka Humoral response
 Involves the production of antibodies (next slide)
 Once produced – these circulate around the body
(specifically blood and lymph) and attack invading agents
 produced by B lymphocytes (B-cells) found in lymphoid
tissue (e.g. lymph nodes)
 provides resistance to extracellular viruses, bacteria and
toxins (before they enter the body’s cells)
 Antibodies
 Antibodies are complex proteins referred to as
immunoglobulins (Ig)
 Produced by plasma cells (following the Humoral
immune response)
 Y-shaped and combine with antigen to form antigen-
antibody complex
 Antigens have specific active sites with a particular shape.

 The antibody has the complementary shape, allowing

them to fit together like a lock and key
 Antibody Action
Antibodies may work by:
 Binding to surface of viruses to prevent them entering cells
 Cause Agglutination – antibodies cause particles to clump together immobilizing them (then
phagocytosis occurs)
 Dissolving organisms
 Inactivating toxins and enzymes by combining with them or inhibiting their reaction with other cells
 Coating bacteria so they are more easily consumed by phagocytes
 Rendering soluble substances insoluble and more easily consumed by phagocytes

You will need to memorise all of these actions. I have underlined the key word you could use to try produce a saying/mnemonic, use the
first letter to make a word or mnemonic to try memorise)

BAD ICI
Agglutination

Agglutinated
meningococcal cells
The Antibody-mediated Immune Response
1. Pathogen (antigen) invades body (see page 170, ‘Antigen presenting cells’)
2. Antigen presenting cell presents the antigen to the B-cells. (It may also be
presented to helper T-cells which release cytokines (proteins that act as
messengers and can also activate B-cells)
3. B-cells are sensitized and enlarge
4. B-cells rapidly divide via mitosis to form clones.
5. Most clones become Plasma cells which secrete specific antibodies (which
protect the body in the various methods mentioned in the slide before)
6. The remaining cells become Memory cells, which spread throughout the
body and allow a response to occur more rapidly if the antigen enters the
body in future exposures.
Copy the Antibody-mediated Response
Flow-chart
on page 170 (Figure 7.20)
  On the first exposure to the antigen the immune

Memory Cells 
reaction is called the primary immune response.
It is fairly slow as it takes several days to build
up large amounts of antibodies (takes time for
B-cells to multiply and differentiate into plasma
cells and memory cells.
 Once antibody levels peak, they soon decline.
 Memory cells that remain allow a faster
secondary response if exposed to the same
antigen again in a second or subsequent
exposure.
 During this time, plasma cells are able to form
more quickly. More antibodies are made and at
a faster rate.
 This is why subsequent exposures can
sometimes not cause any noticeable effect on
the body, as it has been dealt with much faster.
 Why does antibody level still
decline?
 B-cells eventually die as no longer stimulated following infection/exposure to
pathogen. Cells die thus stop producing more antibodies.
 Memory cells, however, survive and hence can continue to provide future
immunity.

 Antibodies can also be consumed and die in process of destroying pathogen

(but this is typically whilst in early stage and therefore B-cells are often still
stimulated, and more antibodies made)
Cell-Mediated Response
Cell-mediated
response
 Cell-mediated response
 Involves T lymphocytes (T-cells) found in lymphoid tissue (e.g. lymph
nodes)
 provides resistance to intracellular viruses and bacteria, fungi and parasites
 involved in autoimmune disease, rejection of transplants and fighting
cancer cells
 Different T-cells respond to particular antigens (specific)
 The Cell-Mediated Immune Response
1. Pathogen (antigen) invades body. B-cells or macrophages encounter the
non-self antigen and engulf, digest and display fragments on their
surface.
2. Antigen-presenting cells present the antigen to the T-Cells.
3. T-cells identify antigen and become sensitised and enlarge
4. T-cells divide via mitosis to form clones, which become:
 Helper T-cells
 Killer T-cells
 Memory cells
 Suppressor T-cells
 Killer T-cells (aka cytotoxic T-cells)
 migrate to site of infection

 attach to and destroy antigens by releasing cytotoxic chemicals

 Helper T-cells
 secrete cytokines

 attract macrophages to the site of infection, bringing about phagocytosis

 They also activate other lymphocytes, intensifying the response.

 They can also promote the action of killer T-cells

 Memory T-cells
 Recognise the same antigen bringing about a faster future/subsequent response

 Suppressor T-cells
 Inhibit B-cell and T-cell activity, which slows down the immune response. (this occurs when the immune
Copy the Cell-Mediated Response Flow-chart on
page 172 (Figure 7.25)

Also see summary table of immune responses on

page 173
Types Immunity & Vaccinations
 Immunity
 Immunity is resistance to infection by invading micro-organisms
 Most of the time the body responds quickly before symptoms are
noticeable
 The ability to respond may be:
 Natural or Artificial
 Passive or Active

 Immunisation occurs when a person is exposed to an antigen and the

immune response is triggered (antibodies are produced)
 Types of Immunity Read pages
173 and 174

Natural Artificial
(No medical intervention) (medical intervention)

Passive Antibodies enter the Antibodies are injected into

(No immune bloodstream via placenta or bloodstream
response breast milk
triggered)

Active Ability to manufacture Ability to manufacture antibodies in

(Immune antibodies in response to response to vaccination
response invading antigen
triggered)
 Artificial
Active
Immunity
Vaccination = the artificial introduction of antigens
(so body can produce antibodies)

A vaccine is an antigen preparation injected into

the body in order to stimulate the immune
response, without the person suffering the
disease.

Most vaccines are given via an injection using a

syringe. Some, such as the rotavirus vaccine is
given to young babies via an oral preparation.
Other forms of delivery are currently under
research, including sprays and skin patches
 TYPE OF VACCINE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES
(ideally know at least one example)

Living Attenuated Micro-organisms of reduced virulence (i.e. have Measles, mumps, rubella,
(aka Attenuated Virulence) a reduced ability to produce symptoms). polio, tuberculosis, yellow
Immunised person does not contract disease fever
but produced antibodies against it
Inactivated Micro- Contain dead microorganisms (killed by heat or Cholera, typhoid & whooping
organisms chemicals). cough
Often immunity is shorter lasting than living
attenuated
Toxoid vaccines Contain an inactivated bacterial toxins Diphtheria, tetanus

Sub-unit Fragment of micro-organism (enough to HPV (gardasil), Hep B

provoke an immune response)

Recombinant DNA gene responsible for producing the antigen is Currently Hep B & HPV
inserted into a plasmid and recombinant DNA
created (more in chap 8)
 Recombinant DNA technology
 Vaccines can now be
prepared using the
biotechnological
technique, Recombinant
DNA technology.
 See chapter 8
 In summary, this involves
altering the genetic
makeup of an organism
(by adding new DNA to it
or change the DNA that is
already there).
 You don’t need to memorise this table.
But…..you do need to know why a schedule exists &
why are some requiring more than one dose. (read page
176 textbook)

Vaccines should not start too soon after birth, as a

newborn’s blood already contains antibodies from
mother via placenta or breast milk (natural passive
immunity) which could try eliminate the antigens in the
vaccine. Which is occurring before the newborn’s
immune system can mount an immune response. A few
months are necessary for the child’s immune system to
become activated and therefore able to prevent the
child from getting the diseases that they are being
vaccinated against. (with exception of Hep B at birth –
as there is a risk of being infected of this at birth). Some
living attenuated are not given until the 12 month mark

Sometime more than one dose is required because

antibody levels may decline after the primary response.
A second dose, a booster is needed to stimulate a
secondary response. This causes memory cells to react
 Herd Immunity
 Relies on a large proportion of the
population being immune to a disease
(through immunisations) to protect the
whole population.
 When there is a large number of immune
individuals, the is less chance of the
disease being transmitted/spread
between them
 The proportion of the population that
needs to be immune to protect the
population varies.
Read page 178
 Vaccines – Factors to consider
 HEALTH
 SOCIAL
 CULTURAL
 ECONOMIC

 2016 WACE question: Describe the social, cultural and economical factors that may
influence whether or not parents choose to have their children immunised.

 Read pages 179-180 and summarise the key points/concerns into a table like drawn
below.
 Factors to consider
Health Issues Social Factors Cultural Factors Economic Factors
• Allergic • Ethical concerns with the use of • Religious beliefs – • Cost may be too
reactions animals to produce vaccines are opposed to expensive to afford
(reaction to the (e.g. influenza virus is cultured in immunisation. These or require cost to
medium in which chicken embryos) religions may rely on visit doctor to get a
the vaccine is • Concerns with testing vaccines faith healing. OR vaccine
cultured. e.g. eggs, on animals methods used to
yeast) • Use of human tissue to produce produce vaccines
• Preservatives – the vaccine (using stem cells) may contradict
individuals claim • Concerns with informed consent religious beliefs.
that chemical (especially with trialling vaccines,
preservatives can may not be fully aware of risks)
affect the N.Sys • Concerns about promoting sexual
and lead to future activity in young individuals (e.g.
health issues HPV in teenagers)
• Availability: may not be readily
available in all areas. (i.e. only
developed countries)
Antibiotics & Antivirals
 Antibiotics
 Drugs used to treat bacterial infections
 Specific to the type of bacteria
 must be toxic to micro-organism but not patient

 each antibiotic has a specific action, e.g.:

 prevents synthesis of bacterial cell walls (e.g. penicillin)
 affect bacterial ribosomes and prevents protein synthesis (tetracyclines,
erythromycin and streptomycin)
 Types of Antibiotics
 2 types: Bactericidal vs. Bacteriostatic
 Bactericidal: kill bacteria by changing the structure of
the cell wall/membrane OR by disrupting the action of
important enzymes.
 Bacteriostatic: stop bacteria from reproducing (by
disrupting protein synthesis).
 Prescription
Some antibiotics affect a wide range of different types of
bacteria. These are called Broad-Spectrum antibiotics.
Narrow-Spectrum antibiotics are only effective against specific
types of bacteria
 Antibiotic use and overuse
 Antibiotics have had a dramatic impact on human health. Infections that
previously had devastating effects have become easy to treat
 a problem with antibiotics is that bacteria or fungi may develop
resistance to the drug
 this problem is made worse by:
 over prescription of antibiotics
 use in agriculture as ‘growth promoters’
 Antibiotic Resistance
 Through natural selection bacteria gradually develop a resistance to an
antibiotic

Treat with antibiotics

mutatio
n

 Multiple-drug-resistant strains are resistant to most antibiotics – ‘Super Bugs’

 vs. Total-Drug resistance (resistant to all known drugs)
 Drs/scientists have to develop new types of Antibiotics in order to overcome
 Antivirals
 Antivirals are used against viruses
 examples: AZT for HIV, Tamiflu for influenza
 Unlike antibiotics that destroy the bacteria,
antivirals inhibit the development of the virus.
 Antivirals can target various stages of the
viral lifecycle:
 block the entry of viral DNA/RNA into host
cell
 interfere with reverse transcriptase enzyme
needed to transcribe viral RNA into DNA
 prevent the release of virus from host cell
 Antiviral Action
 Antivirals can target various stages of the viral lifecycle:
 block the entry of viral DNA/RNA into host cell
 interfere with reverse transcriptase enzyme needed to transcribe viral
RNA into DNA
 prevent the release of virus from host cell